Introduction

General Features: Introduction to the coast of Wales and its coastal zone, Coastal geology and landscapes, Climate, Cultural heritage and Important demographic aspects

State of the Coast: Driving forces, Pressure and State and trends

Coastal Management & Planning: Introduction, Coastal & marine protected areas, Spatial Planning, Integrated Coastal Management (ICM)

References referred to in the text

General Features

Introduction to the coast of Wales and its coastal zone
For its size Great Britain has a long coastline, (Table 1, taken from the Joint Nature Conservation Committee's resource survey of Great Britain measured from 1:50000 Ordnance Survey maps). Just less than 10% of this lies in Wales.
 

Table 1 Total length in km of the coastline of Great Britain

The coastal land of Wales has a very complex structure. Approximately 50% of the coastline is made up of coastal cliffs with an elevated landscape. The rocks are generally older and harder than those in the east and south east of England. On the South Wales coast limestones, including the coral-rich Carboniferous Limestone of Gower predominate. In the south east, the Pembrokeshire coast includes rocks of Precambrian age, some of the oldest in the UK, and resistant volcanic rocks which help to define the cliffs and offshore islands. Here some of the finest coastal landscapes and wildlife areas in Great Britain occur. The cliffed landscape continues into Cardigan Bay giving way to extensive, low-lying sand dunes and alluvium, developed in front of steep cliffs to the north. In the north west the coast looses its sedimentary habitats and again becomes dominated by elevated coastal cliffs and hinterland. Throughout the area are small and large estuaries adding to the complex nature of the coast. There are two major estuaries which lie on the border with England: the Severn Estuary in the south; the Dee Estuary in the north. Offshore the seabed is relatively shallow (Figure 1) especially in Cardigan Bay where there are boulder causeways extending into the sea which are thought to be feature formed when the ice retreated from the area some 10,000 years ago.

Figure 1 Offshore bathymetry. The location of some places named in the text is also shown

Descriptions of the general nature of the coast of Wales are found in a number of books many of which combine Wales with England, as for example, Steers, 1960. Steers book is particularly important as it is a comprehensive and authoritative description of the coast from the perspective of a geomorphologist and geographer. General descriptions of the coastline and the uses to which it is put, including tourist and historic features are the AA Illustrated Guide to Britain's Coast, published by Drive Publications for the Automobile Association. Another informative general text is provided by Robinson & Millward (1983). General texts about the natural history of the coastline (GB) are covered by Freethy (1983), Soothill & Thomas (1987) and Soper 1989.

The marine waters are shallow around most of the coast and all lie within the European Continental Shelf. In the centre of the Irish Sea depths may exceed 100 metres. Fishing is not a major activity. Though there is one major port and many smaller ones which contribute to the local economy.

The most comprehensive descriptions of the range of coastal habitats, ecosystems, species of both conservation and economic important and human activities taking place on the coast and coastal waters of Wales can be found in the publication produced by the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC). The relevant volumes are listed below (Barnes et al. 1995 Region 12 and parts of Regions 11 and 13). See also the summary volume for the Celtic Seas (Weighell et al. 2000) which a companion to that produced for the North Sea (Doody et al. 1991). Details can be found on the JNCC's web site http://www.jncc.gov.uk/coastal/default.htm.

Coastal geology and landscapes: coastal types and main ecosystems
The coastal geology is well documented, see a summary map (Figure 2, Environment Agency Web site http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/). Descriptions onshore of both the base geology and sedimentary deposits (drift geology) are contained in detailed maps produced by the British Geological Survey. The classic descriptions of Steers (1960) include geology, geomorphology, landform and vegetation. There is also information on 'The Making of Wales' available at http://www.ccw.gov.uk

Figure 2 Geological structure of England and Wales (Map courtesy of the British Geological Survey ©NERC 1995. All rights reserved)
 

Climate in the coastal zone
Wales has a mild climate for its latitude, characterised by a small range of annual and daily temperatures and by variable weather patterns, both in time and space. It experiences the combined effect of mild mid-Atlantic westerly winds, and the North Atlantic Gulf Stream, a body of warm water travelling from the tropics. The temperature of this water varies only slowly from month to month because of the oceans capacity to store vast amounts of heat which helps to ameliorate the temperature over the land mass. The mean annual average temperatures in recent years over Great Britain have varied from about 11.5 °C in the extreme south west to about 9.0 °C in the north. In Wales mean annual temperature at low altitudes varies from about 10.5 to 9.5 °C, with the higher values occurring around or near to the coasts and thus as might be expected given its geographical location lies somewhat in between, http://www.meto.govt.uk/climate/uk/location/wales/index.html. This amelioration is especially significant at the coast and is reflected in the extreme maritime nature of many coastal types, particularly those associated with the west facing maritime cliffs which are particularly well represented in Wales.

Cultural heritage in the coastal zone
There is a strong sense of cultural identity in Wales. The Welsh language is spoken by many. Signs are shown in both English and Welsh, publications also often include both languages. Away from the main urban centres there are numerous small coastal villages. Many these contribute to the cultural and landscape of the areas, forming the basis for a thriving tourist trade. There is a rich historical heritage. Cadw: Welsh Historic Monuments' is responsible to the Welsh Assembly for the protection of ancient monuments, archaeological areas and wrecks in Wales http://www.cadw.wales.gov.uk. Many of the most important historical sites are under its protection.

Important demographic aspects (population density, growth, migration)
Human populations are concentrated around Swansea where the major industries of Wales are located. These include the steel works, themselves originally located close to the South Wales coal fields, though now abandoned. Chemical works and oil refineries also occur here and there are major oil refinery facilities in and around Milford Haven on the Pembrokeshire Coast. The other major city and capitol of Wales is Cardiff. Elsewhere especially on the north coast there are many tourist developments, though here and in some of the smaller towns and villages the resident population density is relatively low (Figure 3). It is estimated by the Environment Agency (for England and Wales) that 11.5 million people out of the total population in Great Britain live within 1km of an estuary. Trading ports (as opposed to oil reception or fish landings) are of limited economic significance.

Figure 3: Population within 10km of the coast (Environment Agency 1999)

Wales is a focus for tourism and the coast is of special significance. Developments associated with 'cleaning up' "unsightly" tidal flats as in Cardiff Bay (now a freshwater lake) have created conflict between developers and conservationists.

State of the Coast

The European Environment Agency (EEA) uses a modification of the United Nations' Pressure-State-Response model in their work at the European scale. The EEA's DPSIR causality model shows Driving forces (e.g. industry and transport) producing Pressures on the environment (e.g. polluting emissions), which then degrade the State of the environment and have Impacts on human health and eco-systems. Society Responds with various policy measures, such as regulations, information and taxes, or management action which can be directed at any other part of the system. The Environment Agency has produced a State of the Coast report for England and Wales (Environment Agency 1999).

Marine environment
Further information about the marine environment of Wales (in the context of the Southern Irish Sea) can be found at http://www.irishsea-mis.org. The site includes a search engine and is jointly managed by the Countryside Council for Wales and the Irish Marine Institute. It allows organisations to enter their own information thus increasing its value and encouraging a wide range of information to be accessible commensurate with the complexities of integrated coastal management. The site includes details of other maritime organisations such as the Marine Biological Association http://www.mba.ac.uk which in collaboration with major holders and users of marine biological data has developed MarLIN a source of information about marine habitats, communities and species around Britain and Ireland http://www.marlin.ac.uk.

Driving forces
Land use and land use changes
Development of urban infrastructure, ports and harbours have all taken their toll on the coastal areas of Wales as elsewhere. However, their impact is much less than in many parts of the industrialised areas of England. The exception is the area around Swansea, already referred to. Where developments and loss of coastal (including tidal land) occurs this is often associated with leisure and amenity concerns as in the case of Cardiff Bay (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Land claim in Cardiff Bay (Taken from Doody 2001)

Economic developments, sectors and trends *
A significant percentage of the coastline is already developed in industrial, commercial, residential and recreational terms. 31% of the coastal frontage of England and Wales is occupied by buildings, roads and recreation facilities such as caravan parks, camping sites, car parks and golf courses. In Wales the pressures are less though economic expansion likely to increase in the future. About 40% of UK manufacturing industry is also situated on or near the coast because of access to ports increasing the ease of importing and exporting.

Pressure
Natural forces
Climate change and sea level rise are less important than in the south and east of England. The generally cliffed nature of much of the coast restricts potential problems to the low-lying land around its estuaries. Coupled with the harder more resistant rocks the incidence of erosion is also much less of an issue. Generally the southern part of Wales is sinking as a result of isostatic factors resulting from the end of the last glaciation whilst the north is static. Relative sea level rise is estimated to be about 0.0mm per annum in the extreme south east (Carter 1988).

Development
Land for housing, barrages, recreational demand and transport (especially for port facilities) continues to be required. Demand for coastal protection from erosion, and sea and tidal defences against flooding is an issue and as Figure 5 shows a considerable part of the coast of Wales is protected. Many coastal defences are essential to the social and economic well being of the landward areas, and often of seaward resources such as boating and recreational facilities. The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) are responsible for policy on flood and coastal defence in Wales (as well as in England) and oversee the development and implementation of Shoreline Management Plans.

Figure 5 Sea defences in England and Wales

Water quality and pollution
Sewage and industrial discharges both regulated and accidental continue to have an impact on coastal waters. These effects have greatly decreased in recent years as more investment has been made on treatment. Disposal at sea is no longer an issue as this stopped in 1998. Bathing water compliance with the mandatory standards of the EC Directive has been steadily increasing in recent years as a result of a substantial and continuing investment by the water service companies (see http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk.
Hyder, a privatised water company is responsible for water supply, water management and waste water treatment amongst other things http://www.hyder.co.uk .

Water and aggregate extraction
Water abstraction from coastal aquifers (such as the sand dunes in the Netherlands) is not a major activity though river water is used as drinking water and coolant for power stations. Aggregate extraction on the other hand, both onshore and offshore, is a major activity. Much of the offshore aggregate extraction is controlled by the Crown Estate which manages it for the Queen [see http://www.crownestate.co.uk/info/stewardship/marine.shtml]. The Marine holdings include about half of the foreshore around the UK (between mean low and mean high water), 55% of the beds of tidal rivers and estuaries and almost all of the seabed out to the 12 mile territorial limit. It is the second largest business group of the Crown Estate. Other activities using the foreshore and seabed include pipelines, cables, outfalls, ports, jetties and boating facilities as well as a large number of conservation leases.

State and trends
State and trends The Coastal Directories volumes (Barne et al. 1995-6) all include sections on human activities as they effect elements of coastal and marine interest from rare species to commercially exploited resources. The comments made below are just a small selection of some of the key issues. The new National Assembly for Wales has the important duty of furthering sustainable development, which requires a balance to be struck between the needs of society, the economy and the environment. The Environment Agency in Wales has the responsibility of contributing to sustainability as well as producing a State of the Environment report http://www.environment-agency.wales.gov.uk.

Coastal & marine biodiversity
Of the 624 scarce or rare plants in Great Britain 121 occur in coastal habitats. Of the habitats and species identified in the Biodiversity Action Plan 12 habitats and 54 species occur in Wales (though not exclusively coastal). Many of these are becoming rarer as habitat destruction and changes in land management make the sites less optimal for survival. Changes in grazing management is a particularly important issue. Habitat fragmentation has also been important and species such as the chough (a bird of sea cliffs) are now much rarer than formerly. By contrast many of the major seabird colonies have shown an increase in nesting birds as protective measures have been effective. The Countryside Council for Wales http://www.ccw.gov.uk, supported by the Joint nature Conservation Committee provide a comprehensive information service Biodiversity Information Service. The JNCC co-ordinates the UK biodiversity programme see http://www.jncc.gov.uk/ukbg/default.htm for information and contact points for habitat and species action plans.

In Wales the Wales Biodiversity Group promotes, monitors and advises the National Assembly for Wales on action to maintain and enhance biodiversity http://www.assembly.wales.gov.uk/.

The Marine Conservation Society is an NGO concerned with all aspects of marine conservation http://www.mcsuk.mcmail.com including those in Wales.

Coastal ecosystems and habitats
The historical losses of habitat notably in estuaries continue, but on a smaller scale. In Wales, in 1991 rubbish tips, housing and car parks, sea defences and transport schemes made up more than three quarters of the land-claim cases recorded (Davidson et al. 1991). Protection of sites through statutory legislation (especially as Sites of Special Scientific Interest, see below) has resulted in some, but by no means all development proposals being refused within these sites. Exceptions occur and major conflicts continue to arise. The case of Cardiff Bay has attracted considerable interest as the whole of the remaining area of tidal flats of the Taff/Ely estuaries now lies under water as a result of the construction of a tidal exclusion barrage. Generally it is the small scale cumulative losses which overall can cause greatest damage. These together with changes in management such as reduction or cessation of grazing can fundamentally alter the nature of the habitat such that major loss of wildlife interest can occur. Scrub encroachment onto species-rich coastal grassland (including sand dunes and sea cliffs) is a major factor in loss of species of both plants and animals. The extinction of the large blue butterfly and the loss of many breeding chough colonies are both attributed, in part at least to reduction in grazing of their preferred habitats in coastal locations, especially in the south west, including Wales.

Important coastal & marine species
Exploitation of fish resources continues to be a major concern throughout Wales. Wales has seen declining catches of salmon in recent years and also some evidence of a decline in sea trout and brown trout. Some populations may be below sustainable levels. Salmon catches have increased in some rivers as pollution controls have taken effect and the removal of barriers to migration.

Information on fish catches is collated by the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food fisheries laboratories. CEFAS is a scientific research and monitoring centre for fisheries management and environmental protection. http://www.cefas.co.uk/homepage.htm providing contract research, consultancy, advice and training in fisheries science and management, see http://www.cefas.co.uk/Fisheriesman.htm, as well as marine environmental protection, aquaculture and fish and shellfish disease and hygiene. Work includes the collection and analyses of appropriate data on fish, fisheries and the marine environment in order to providing management advice to the Ministers of the member states of the European Union so that the Common Fisheries Policy can be implemented and improved.

Over-fishing has reduced the populations of many coastal species. The knock-on impact on by-catch (notably of cetaceans) is also becoming more apparent. Recent deaths of a large number of dolphins are a particular concern. Information on cetaceans is available from a number of sources e.g. the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) http://www.wwf-uk.org.

Spartina anglica continues to be an important element in the changing nature of saltmarshes. In Wales rapid invasion continues especially in and around many of its estuaries, both large and small. Some of the most rapid rates are found on the northern shore of the Dee.

Regular monitoring of birds wintering in the estuaries are included in the wetland survey co-ordinated by the British Trust for Ornithology (http://www.bto.org/survey/webs/webscore.htm ). These continue to provide important information on the status of many bird species and help form the basis for conservation action including designation of sites of international and national importance.

References referred to in the text:

Barne, J.H., Robson, C.F., Kaznowska, S.S. & Doody, J.P., 1996. Coasts and Seas of the United Kingdom. Region 11, The Western Approaches: Falmouth Bay to Kenfig. Peterborough, Joint Nature Conservation Committee.

Barne, J.H., Robson, C.F., Kaznowska, S.S. & Doody, J.P., 1995. Coasts and Seas of the United Kingdom. Region 12, Wales: Margam to Little Orme. Peterborough, Joint Nature Conservation Committee.

Barne, J.H., Robson, C.F., Kaznowska, S.S. & Doody, J.P., 1996. Coasts and Seas of the United Kingdom. Region 13, Northern Irish sea: Colwyn Bay to Stranraer, including the Isle of Man. Peterborough, Joint Nature Conservation Committee.

Carter, R.W.G., 1988. Coastal environments. An introduction to the physical, ecological and cultural systems of coastlines. Academic Press, London.

Countryside Council for Wales, 1994. A Policy Framework for the Coastal and Marine Zone of Wales: a Discussion Document. CCW, Bangor.

Davidson, N.C., Laffoley, D d'A., Doody, J.P., Way, L.S., Gordon, J., Key, R., Drake, C.M., Pienkowski, M.W., Mitchell, R. & Duff, K.L., 1991. Nature Conservation and Estuaries in Great Britain. Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough.

Department of the Environment/Welsh Office, 1992. Planning Policy Guidance - Coastal Planning. HMSO, London. (PPG 20)

Department of the Environment/Welsh Office, 1993. Development below Low Water Mark: a review of regulation in England and Wales. HMSO, London.

Department of the Environment/Welsh Office, 1993. Managing the Coast: a Review of Coastal Management Plans in England and Wales and the Powers Supporting Them. HMSO, London.

Department of the Environment, 1993. Coastal Planning and Management: a Review. Rendel Geotechnics, HMSO, London.

Department of the Environment, 1995. Policy Guidelines for the Coast. HMSO, London. Department of the Environment, 1996. Coastal Zone Management, Towards Best Practice.

Department of the Environment, London Doody, J.P., 2001. Coastal Conservation and management: an Ecological Perspective. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, USA.

Environment Agency (1999) The State of the Environment of England and Wales: Coasts. The Stationary Office, London

Freethy, R., 1983. The Naturalist's Guide to the British Coastline. David & Charles, Newton Abbot.

House of Commons, 1992. Coastal Zone Protection and Planning. HMSO, London. Environment Committee Second Report.

Joint Nature Conservation Committee, 1999. Coasts and Seas of the United Kingdom. Coastal Directories Electronic Platform (Phase 1). Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough

Local Government Association, 1999. On the Edge: the Real Issues on the Coast. A Draft Strategy from the LGA's Special Interest Group on Coastal Issues. LGA Publications, Local Government Association, London.

Robinson, A. & Millward, R., 1983. The Shell Book of the British Coast. David & Charles, Newton Abbot.

Soothill, E. & Thomas, M.J., 1987. The Natural History of Britain's Coasts. Blanford Press, London.

Soper, T., 1989. A Natural History Guide to the Coast. Peerage Books, in association with the National Trust.

Steers, J.A., 1960. The Coast of England & Wales in Pictures. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Steers, J.A., 1969a. The Coastline of England and Wales. 2nd ed. Cambridge. At the University Press.

Steers, J.A., 1969b. The Sea Coast. 4th ed. London, Collins. (New Naturalist Series No. 25.)

Weighell, A.J., Donnelly, A.P. & Calder, K., 2000. Directory of the Celtic Coasts and Seas. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough

Preparation and copyright

This information has been prepared for the Coastal Guide Europe by:

Dr Pat Doody, EUCC UK
c/o National Coastal Consultants,
5 Green Lane,
BRAMPTON, Huntingdon, Cambs.,
PE28 4RE, UK
Tel.: 00 44 (0) 1480 392706
E-mail: pat.doody@ntlworld.com
Website: http://www.coastalplaza.org/uk/ncc

© Copyright NCC, 2000 / EUCC, 2000