1. The Coastal Zone
1.1 Description of the coastal zone
1.2 Definition of the coastal zone
2. Coastal Management and Spatial Planning in the Coastal Zone
2.1 Authority
2.2 Policy
2.3 Legislation
3. Coastal and Marine Environmental Policy
3.1. Policy
3.2 Legislation
4. Coastal and Marine Nature Conservation Policy
5. Economic Developments, Important Sectors and Trends
5.1 Tourism and recreation
6. The Current State of Integrated Coastal Zone Management
6.1 Finished projects
6.2 Ongoing projects
6.3 Initiatives related to ICZM
6.4 Evaluation
7. NGOs and Other Private Stakeholders
8. References

1. The Coastal Zone

1.1 Description of the coastal zone
Sweden's coastline is about 7,600 km long, including all mainland bays and the coasts of the large islands. The coastal environment includes the landscape as a whole and the sea and sea-bed close to the shore. The salinity of the water varies from about 30 parts per thousand in the Skagerrak to only about 1 in the Bothnian Bay. The varied marine ecological systems are adapted to the level of salinity. The Skagerrak is rich in fauna and flora species whereas the brackish waters off the east coast are characterised by few species but large numbers which nevertheless constitute a unique ecosystem.

Along more than half of the Swedish coastline there are skerries that vary in size and character. The broadest is off Stockholm (the Stockholm archipelago). The skerries in Norrland are low and often consisting of moraine or sand. The coast of Västernorrland has Sweden's highest coast with 200- 300 m high cliffs (the High Coast World Heritage Site). The coastal archipelagos to the north and south of the Stockholm archipelago are more diversified with thousands of small islands. The Blekinge islands are characterised by green oak woods whilst the Bohuslän skerries (on the west coast of Sweden) have a more bare and bleaker coast environment. Rocky beaches are mostly found along the high coastal stretches (Bohuslän, Östergötland and Södermanland) whereas sandy beaches are common in the southern part of Sweden (Skåne and Halland) and in the northern part (Norrbotten). Beaches with shingle and boulders are dominant on the east coast.

In spite of Sweden's extremely long coastline, the amount of space available for houses and industrial sites is not unlimited. In past decades considerable parts of the coast have been blocked by buildings, making the beaches inaccessible for the public. A field study in the late 1960s showed that along 50 per cent of Sweden's coast, with the exception of Gotland and Norrland, it was not possible to enjoy natural bathing or outdoor activities because of reeds, steep cliffs and so on. A full 40 per cent of the rest was inaccessible for the public because of buildings, mainly weekend cottages.

According to a newly presented Swedish statistical report, about 3 million people (one third of the total population) inhabit the coastal areas within a distance of five kilometres from the coast. About 0.8 million of the 2.6 million buildings in Sweden are situated within this area.

1.2 Definition of the coastal zone
The Swedish Environmental Code (1999) includes special management provisions for particular coastal zones in Sweden. The inland and off-shore extent of the coastal zone is not explicitly defined in the Code but the areas were comprehensively showed on maps connected with the bill in which the regulations were proposed. According to the bill the more detailed definition of the various coastal zones is a task for the municipal comprehensive (physical) planning. The extension off-shore is suggested to be 1 – 3 nautical miles from the base-line.

In the Environmental Code there are also provisions on shore protection. The purpose of the shore protection is to protect pre-conditions for outdoor activities of the public and to preserve good living conditions for fauna and flora on land and in water. Shore protection comprises generally all land and water areas (inland and off-shore) up to 100 meters from the shoreline. This can be extended to 300 m in individual cases. Within this area there is a prohibition on all development, including the construction of new buildings, fences or piers although exemptions may be granted.

2. Coastal Management and Spatial Planning in the Coastal Zone

2.1 Authority
The central government ministries most relevant to coastal zone planning and management are the Ministry of the Environment and to some extent the Agricultural Ministry where issues concerning fisheries are handled. The National Boards or Agencies in Sweden also have great responsibilities regarding environmental issues and planning since they produce guidelines and some of them give permits to larger projects within their sector. Most important are the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the National Board of Fisheries, the National Board of Shipping and Administration, the Swedish Board of Housing, Building and Planning and the Coast Guard. With the purpose to achieve a sustainable community, these agencies together with the regional organisations have a responsibility to inform, consult and co-operate with the municipalities in different matters concerning physical resources.

The municipalities in Sweden are responsible for physical planning both at the comprehensive and detailed level although the County Administrative Board can intervene if decisions by the municipalities threaten national interests.

2.2 Policy
In April 1999, the Swedish parliament decided on 15 national environmental quality objectives which are important to obtain sustainable development. Many of the objectives are relevant to coastal areas and one of them - “A balanced marine environment, sustainable coastal areas and archipelagos” - is specially addressed to the coastal areas.

The environmental quality objective is an action plan for environmental policy. The environmental code is adjusted to the development within environmental policy and the legislation is used as a tool for reaching the environmental objectives. Environmental quality objectives are political by nature and should provide a basis for the forthcoming environmental policy. The rules and prescriptions of the code are tools to reach the targets. There is no contradiction between the code and the environmental quality objectives; they interact to reach the final objective of sustainable development. It should be stressed that Spatial Planning is an instrument to achieve environmental objectives.

In Sweden there is a tradition of public access which is a common right known as Everyman's Right (or the Swedish Right of Public Access) which entitles any person to roam freely, even on private property (excluding gardens and areas close to a dwelling house), provided that it does not disturb or cause any damage. It includes the right to swim, moor a boat temporarily, go ashore everywhere except close to dwellings or where entry has been prohibited by an authority, for instance in a bird or seal sanctuary . However, there may be certain restrictions, such as speed limits, no entry or no water-skiing. Hunting and fishing are not covered by this Right, but fishing with a rod or other hand tackle (except for salmon on the coast of Norrland) is allowed anywhere in the five largest lakes and along the coasts.

2.3 Legislation
There is no overall national legislation specifically for coastal zone planning in Sweden. The main legal framework is the Environmental Code and the Planning and Building Act (1987) which apply to both terrestrial and marine areas. According to the Planning and Building Act all municipalities must produce a comprehensive plan that covers their entire area and can be used as a decision making tool. The Environmental Code includes special provisions for the management of land and water areas. A major part of the coastal zone has been identified as an area of national interest. Many of the provisions in the Environmental Code should be used when applying the Planning and Building Act.

The special management provisions in the Environmental Code include regulations on siting new industrial installations, tourism and recreational functions and restrictions on summer cottage developments. Other laws of particular concern for the coastal areas are the Swedish Economic Zone Act and the Fishery Act. An economic zone was established in January 1993 outside the Swedish territory. The Swedish Economic Zone Act consists of the regulations concerning protection of the marine environment and utilisation of natural resources in the zone. The Fishery Act regulates fishing.

3. Coastal and Marine Environmental Policy

3.1. Policy
Sweden is a member of HELCOM since 1974. HELCOM makes many recommendations for all sorts of sea pollution in the Baltic Sea area including discharges from land, ships, atmospheric deposition, dumping and pollution caused by investigation or exploitation of the sea bed etc. The parties have undertaken to counteract discharges of environmentally hazardous substances that may end up in the Baltic Sea. Decisions taken by the Helsinki Commission - which are reached unanimously - are regarded as recommendations to the governments concerned. These HELCOM Recommendations are to be incorporated into the national legislation of the member countries. Sweden is incorporating the recommendations in its environmental policies as much as possible.

3.2 Legislation
Since 1 January 1999 a new Environmental Code has come into force. The aim of this new Environmental Code is to promote sustainable development that ensures a healthy environmental impact on both the current and future generations. Rules from fifteen former environmental laws were incorporated in the Environmental Code with the purpose to create a stronger environmental legislation in Sweden. The Natural Resources Management Act of 1987 has been directly incorporated into the Code including its special management provisions for coastal areas. These include guidance on siting new industrial installations, tourism and recreational functions and restriction on summer cottage developments.

4. Coastal and Marine Nature Conservation Policy

There are several forms of protection with differing content depending on what is to be protected. The legal method in Sweden is to establish national parks or nature reserves along the coast. Special areas can be put aside with directions that restrict hunting and fishing rights or the right to visit the area. The most common way to protect is through nature reserves. The Environmental Code states that the decision to found a national park is made by parliament and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency decides on their management. County administrative boards and local governments actually decide on the establishment and are responsible for the management and monitoring of designated areas. A national park is an example of extensive protection. One problem when protecting areas is the liability to pay compensation to private property owners. It should be noted that all nature reserves as well as national parks in Sweden are freely accessible for all people.

A total of 9% of Sweden's territory is protected in one way or another. About 530 of Sweden's almost 2,300 national parks and nature reserves are situated along the coast or in the sea. A total of 230 islands and small skerries are protected and prohibited to public access during the breeding season of birds.

5. Economic Developments, Important Sectors and Trends

The Swedish government and some regional organisations support sustainable development in coastal regions. Among other financial sources the EU Structural Funds are used to support economic development and wise management in a lot of Swedish islands. The Regional Environment and Management Programmes are examples of the ambition to integrate ecological, economic and social aspects in regional development.

5.1 Tourism and recreation
The population in some popular parts of the coastal areas surpasses the total of permanent residents many times over during the summer. There are plenty of camping sites, vacation cottages, leisure boats and harbours. In some municipalities almost half of the housing stock is summer-cottages.

Tourism is one of the major industries, which generates jobs and fiscal means to the coastal region. A few busy months during the tourist season do in fact keep many kinds of public services alive for the rest of the year and are very beneficial to the people who are permanent residents in the area. The local authorities have a great responsibility in the management and development of tourism. They are owners of more than 1/3 of the beds available in hotels, cottages, camping sites etc. They also play an important role is establishing the local and regional tourist organisations.

The increasing number of foreign and Swedish tourists has also created problems in some parts of the coastal zone. In some areas the heavy pressure from the tourists and the small boats affect the ecosystems, especially near islands where seals and birds breed. Other problems are the inappropriate camping activities and use of motor boats in the coastal areas around the big cities.

6. The Current State of Integrated Coastal Zone Management

An integrated approach to the management of the coastal zone is already to a large extent demanded in Swedish legislation with the Ministry of the Environment as the responsible body. Taking this into consideration, an integrated approach is already practised in many plans and projects. It is therefore less easy to identify specific projects with an integrated approach. Nonetheless, over the last few years, several projects have been started up by the Swedish government, local or international NGOs or other interest groups. Lately, Sweden has also been involved in bilateral and multilateral projects related to ICZM in several regions in the world.

6.1 Finished projects

Archipelago projects
In 1998, a national project named the Archipelago project was set up. It was initiated by the Swedish national government for the development of all archipelagos around Sweden. The aim was to create a concrete action programme designed to achieve sustainable development of the archipelagos. Seven County Administrative Boards were involved. The County Administration was the project leader and so had total responsibility for the project in which there was also a group of coastal specialists from the municipalities and other people with special knowledge of the coast. The project was completed in 2000.

As a part of the project, Regional Environment and Management Programmes were developed for four coastal areas: the coastal area in the counties of Stockholm, Uppland and Södermanland, the coastal areas of Östergötland and Kalmar, the Blekinge Coast and the coastal zone between Gothenburg and the Norwegian border. Besides some legal aspects the Regional Environment and Management Programmes included the following components:

• definition of issues and problems of the environment and management of natural resources in a way which is beneficial to the environment and at the same time integrated with employment and economic growth;
• economic possibilities and conditions for support of development, for example EU Structural Funds Programmes, to achieve ecologically sustainable solutions; and
• special programmes developed to deal with the environment and management issues in regional and local planning.

The Nordre Älv Estuary Project
In 1997 the municipality of Kungälv set up projects to establish nature preservation areas or community renewal schemes, a successful example is the Nordre Älv Estuary which is now a nature preservation area. The project was initiated by the National Environment Protection Board and was approved by the municipality and the Country Administrative board. Another successful planning project in the same municipality was in the town of Hedvigsholmen. The shipyard of the town underwent a renewal project, to exploit the old shipyard with its surrounding area at Marstrand. Again, the project was finished at the end of 1999.

SAMS
In 1997, a national project started, called Environmental Objectives and Indicators in Spatial Planning (SAMS). The aim of the project was to find out how environmental objectives could be adapted to spatial planning and which indicators could be used to determine whether a planning alternative contributes to, or obstructs, the environmental objectives. The project was finished in the autumn of 2000 and has resulted in a lot of publications in which methods, tools, good examples and case studies are presented. The focus is not specifically on the coastal areas but the methodological results presented could be applied in the coastal areas.

6.2 Ongoing projects

SUCOZOMA
Sweden is running Europe’s largest research programme on ICZM of marine resources: the Research Programme on Sustainable Coastal Zone Management of Marine Resources (SUCOZOMA). This programme aims to develop the concepts, evaluate instruments and procedures needed in order to resolve, on a basis of science and public participation, conflicts concerning the use and conservation of the natural resources of the Swedish coastal zone. The programme also aims to create local jobs in coastal communities in activities that are ecologically and economically sustainable. It has recently submitted its plans for the years 2001-2003 (phase II), in which "it wants to focus completely on solid problem identification, giving eutrophication and mis-management of fish stocks in the coastal zone top priority". Sucozoma aims, in this way, to provide the local or national government with a report based on their findings and analyses to re-structure the problems identified in the local fisheries.

BEST project
This is focused on Sustainable Tourism Development from the seven larger islands' (B7) Bornholm - Denmark, Gotland - Sweden, Hiiumaa - Estonia, Saaremaa - Estonia, Rügen - Germany, Åland - Finland and Öland - Sweden. The approach is clearly cross-sectoral and related to the core of the measure “integrated management of coastal zone and island”. The B7 islands have been co-operating since 1998 and this project is determined as a key element in their common strategy and the action programme. It is related to the Baltic 21 action programme. The project enhances knowledge and exchange of experiences between the islands, trying to create a common long lasting network for co-operation on sustainable tourism development with links to tourism organisations, NGOs and research institutions.

SUSWAT
The focus of the SUSWAT project is on the water supply in relation to environmental protection and sustainability. It enhances knowledge exchange between the B7 about planning and management of the water supply. The aim is to start up demonstration of new solutions related to management and planning of sustainable water supply. There is a clear linkage to the BEST project. The project is considered as a key element in the B7 common strategy and action programme of the BEST project.

The Maritime Heritage Project
The Maritime Heritage project is a co-operation of four coastal zones in the Baltic Sea region, of which one is located in the municipality of Härnösand, Sweden. The aim is to find ways to benefit from their marine heritage, since all of the regions bear a rich variety of maritime elements, and marine structures. The regions will also work at a master plan to improve spatial development by using maritime heritage and develop maritime structure.

VILLNET
VILLNET is a project whose aim it is to identify natural, cultural and human resources in rural districts around the Baltic Sea region with different potentials and, after analysis, find models for sustainable development. The overall objective will be to make it possible to live and work in the district in the future. Measures will be directed to find a balanced adjustment between protection and economic development in coastal zones and other interesting protection areas will be used as pilot models for other regions. Through using natural, cultural and human resources the project will create models for new income sources in rural districts, introduce long-term sustainable perspective in rural spatial planning and establish a networking co-operation between villages on a national and international level. The result of the project is e.g. a survey of the resources in the villages, better knowledge of the needs for future development and ideas of how to meet and satisfy them. Participating Swedish villages are Päryd, Loftahammar, Blankaholm, Bråbygden and Skäfteskärr.

High Quality Tourism
High Quality Tourism is a project focusing on increasing tourism and sustainable development in regions with a large share of protected areas. This includes a study assessing the total income generated from enlarging tourism and job opportunities in the project areas. The result will be a handbook for local actors and linked tourism projects within, and between, the regions.

Bothnian Arc
Bothnian arc- transport systems project is also a part of the umbrella project Bothnian Arc. The objective of the project is to develop combinations and co-ordinations between different transport systems and between countries, in order to increase and intensify the transportation through the regions in a safe and sustainable way. The project concerns the whole communication system.

Örsbaken project
The Örsbaken project is a regional coastal project which deals with three river basins: the Nyköping River, the Kila River and the Svärta River - a geographical region covering an area of nearly 4,500 square kilometres and containing three counties and 13 municipalities along the Baltic Sea coast in an area south of Stockholm. The overarching objective is to achieve an acceptable utilization of resources in the river basin and to create a good water environment in the longer perspective. At the same time it is important to obtain clean water-courses, a good sea environment, good conditions for flora and fauna, an attractive landscape as well as new jobs and wide-ranging co-operation.

The method of doing this is to start a co-operation between regional and local authorities as well as to involve the interested parties concerned, the process owners (local participants, landowners), so that they take an active interest in the project. The Örsbaken project is conducted in process form which means that visions and alternatives are formulated. It is assumed that the private process owners will accept responsibility for that part of the water system they are familiar with and wish to conserve. For this reason, more extensive control by these parties themselves is a necessary prerequisite. By learning how the system reacts to different activities, the process owners should specify the objectives in their area. Research activities are connected to this project.

6.3 Initiatives related to ICZM

Kaspnet
The project is focused on co-operation in a wide area in Northern Europe, called Karelia-Atlantic Spatial Development Network (KASPNET). The project will establish and support a long lasting networking on spatial planning in this Development Zone, engaging a very large number of partners which to some extent already are co-operating in the region. One of the participants in Finland is Ostrobothnia. Subjects that are being covered are, for example, analysis of the conditions and development potential in the area, thematic studies, and development of a spatial planning strategy for the area. One of the priority areas is environmental dimensions, tourism and coastal zones. By treating the coastal and island areas in Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Republic of Karelia in parallel studies, there are chances to achieve a common knowledge based on both the differences and the similarities.

6.4 Evaluation
According to PROCOAST 2000, Sweden's coast is in a fairly good environmental state although, in the south, there is pressure for further recreational development.

7. NGOs and Other Private Stakeholders

In recent years NGOs have been more active in the planning process, especially in trying to protect certain areas for natural and cultural purposes. The new Environmental Code also enables NGOs to participate in decision making in a substantial form. Some of the most important NGOs in Sweden concerned with nature conservation limited with respect to the coast are:

Agenda 21 Forum Skåne
Network of organisations for the promotion of sustainability in the Swedish province of Skåne. The forum is multi-sectoral with business, municipalities, adult education societies, universities, and regional government as members.

Baltic Marine Ecologists
An international non-governmental scientific organisation whose aim is to promote studies on the biological diversity, structure, function and sustainable management of the Baltic Sea ecosystems.

Coalition Clean Baltic (CCB)
The first environmental NGO-network established in the Baltic Sea Region, established in 1990. Today it has 25 member organisations in all 9 countries bordering the Baltic Sea. The main goal of CCB is the protection and improvement of the Baltic Sea environment and natural resources. It is gathering, producing and distributing information about environmental problems in the Baltic Sea Area.

Erosionskade Centrum
An NGO involved in shoreline management.

National Association for Swedish Archipelago
An NGO that was closely involved in the National Archipelago Project.

The Centre for Natural Resources and Environment research of the University of Stockholm
A public institute that provides research in the field of efficient environmental planning along the Baltic coast line and is closely aligned with Ballad, an independent forum for networking in the Baltic region.

The Green Library Lund Association
An information centre for environmental issues which gives free service to the public, in this way contributing to raising the level of knowledge among the public as well as among decision makers.

The Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI)
Provides information for "sustainable development at a systems level for the Baltic Sea Region (so-called Baltic 21) leading to cleaner production and improved environmental management.

The Swedish Society for Nature Conservation
Established in 1909. Today the organisation is the biggest nature conservation and environmental organisation in Sweden, with 274 local branches across the whole country and 140,000 members.

The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Sweden
Is part of one of the largest NGOs for nature conservation.

8. References

Ballad; Independent forum for networking in the Baltic Region Internet: http://www.ballad.org

Bridge, L. & Salman A, Policy Instruments for ICZM in Nine Selected European Countries (2000)

Interreg homepage Internet: http://www.spatial.baltic.net/

NORCOAST Report: Review of national and regional planning processes and instruments in the North Sea regions, Full Study, Norcoast Project secretariat, Denmark (1999). (8PC99)

PROCOAST Project Secretariat, PROCOAST State-of-the-Art Report. Background for Coastal Zone Planning and Management in the Baltic Sea Region (2000)

Terekhina, N, Nature Conservation and Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Denmark, Sweden, Finland and Russia, EUCC, Leiden (2000)

The Environment, National Atlas of Sweden,

United Nations. Sustainable Development Agenda 21.