| European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones | ||
| XIII. URBANISATION
13.1. Status and Trends Urbanisation claims large expanses of coastline in European countries, and urban sprawl is a problem in all coastal regions.Approximately 200 million people live within 50 km of Europe's coasts - well over a third of the total population (Stanners & Bourdeau 1995). Populations continue to migrate from inland to coastal areas, and from rural to urban areas in search of economic opportunity, recreational facilities, and/or better climate (ENVIREG 1994). In the Mediterranean, for example, the Blue Plan reports that in
1985 almost 90% of urbanised land in the Mediterranean was located
in the coastal zones of Spain, France, Greece, Italy and former
Yugoslavia. By 2025, the percentage of the population of these countries
living in coastal cities is projected to be more than 85% on average,
and as high as 96% in Spain (Stanners
& Bourdeau 1995). Along the French Mediterranean coast,
the population is growing three times faster than the European Community
average, and an average population growth of approximately 50% is
expected between 1991 and 2001 in coastal areas from Languedoc-Rousillon
to Andalucia (ENVIREG 1994).
More than 70% of the seafront from Barcelona to Naples has been
developed, and few natural areas remain. This trend is continuing
in other Mediterranean regions (UNEP
1996). 13.2. Impacts The process of urbanisation leads to major impacts on land, air, water and landscape quality. Such impacts include the depletion and pollution of groundwater, air and noise pollution from urban traffic, occupation of sensitive habitats, landscapes, and/or prime agricultural lands, reduction of space needed for natural coastal dynamics, and visual disturbance. Urbanisation in coastal regions causes additional problems, as surrounding seas are often used as a repository for waste discharges of all kinds, which degrades coastal and marine habitats and has consequences for tourism, fishing, and/or agriculture. Discharges of industrial wastes to municipal sewage systems compound this problem. Not only do such discharges pose a threat to health, they are also a major source of litter. Even with primary or secondary treatment, municipal sewage systems are responsible for the discharge of nutrients which may result in toxic blooms of phytoplankton and cause major problems for fisheries (Ibid). Finally, the expansion of coastal cities and suburbs is often accompanied by shoreline modification projects which cause further disturbance. Urbanisation also has important secondary effects. For example, quarrying of sand and mineral aggregates for the construction of urban dwellings represents approximately 20% of the total land lost to urbanisation (UNIDO 1994). The process of urbanisation often results in the loss of fishing space and/or rights for the fishing community where traditional fishing grounds and small ports give way to other developments (FAO 1994). The environmental impact of large ports is also significant, including problems of erosion of adjacent shoreline, loss of intertidal habitat, and damage to coastal ecosystems caused by the dredging and filling of wetlands during construction. Ports are also major sources of pollution as a result of discharges of waste, bilge washing, and the use of toxic chemicals and paints. Inland urbanisation may also have impacts on coastal regions. For
example, the depletion of groundwater may have an impact on river,
and ultimately coastal, systems and can lead to salt water intrusion
into underground aquifers. 13.3. Opportunities
13.4. Guidelines for Urban Development in Coastal Areas Public access to the coast - preferably by cycle, foot, or clean public transport - is a fundamental principle of coastal development. Coastal urban planners should recognise the desire of residents to have access to the coast for a variety of different purposes which may or may not be compatible (e.g. recreation vs. the quiet appreciation of nature). Coastal industries also compete for access to the coast and coastal resources. Potentially conflicting values and uses can be partially avoided by the utilisation of a zoning system designed to accommodate the diversity of uses. At the same time, the fragility and scarcity of natural coastal habitats should be recognised. Special protection measures may be needed for some areas, including restricted human access. Urban growth and the planning of new cities in coastal regions should be approached from an environmental perspective. Damage to coastal systems should be minimised through the prevention of urban sprawl. The concentration of buildings and infrastructure also has benefits for public transport and energy conservation. Further urban development should be directed towards the hinterland. An extensive network of green spaces of significant natural value should be maintained in urban and adjacent areas. It is recognised that decisions on land use distribution by necessity also have to take into account in addition to the environment other locational, social, economic and legal considerations. Siting of Buildings and Infrastructure Development in coastal regions should be concentrated outside of the coastal strip. Where development is dependent upon access to the sea, problems can be avoided by establishing a set-back zone for construction 100-300 meters landward of the marine high water line, and a few kilometres seaward of the marine low water line. This distance is somewhat arbitrary and serves only as a general guide; attention should also be paid to the nature of the geomorphological context of the area and the type of effect which may occur. Buildings located on or near a sedimentary system of recent origin may be threatened by erosional forces. Placement of infrastructure or facilities in dune areas, saltmarshes, shingle structures, beaches, caves, cliffs and other natural habitats or nearby important cultural monuments will destroy these areas, with potentially major safety and environmental repercussions. Similarly, development in (or likely to affect) wetlands or other sensitive habitats can be very damaging and should not be permitted. Design and Planning New urban development in coastal areas can be designed and planned to avoid or at least significantly reduce harmful impacts on the coastal and marine environment. Guidelines on design and planning can be found in "Tourism". Construction Guidelines on environmentally-friendly construction materials and practices are included in the section on "Tourism". Water Conservation Guidelines on water conservation can be found in "Water Management". Wastewater Treatment Guidelines on wastewater treatment are shown in "Water Management". Solid Waste Treatment Waste segregation is a key component of sustainable waste treatment. Materials that can be recycled (e.g. paper, glass, aluminium) should be collected separately, by placing receptacles at convenient locations. Receptacles should be emptied regularly (before they are completely full) and recovery/recycling of materials should be guaranteed in order to increase user confidence. Composting of organic materials at the source should be encouraged where feasible, if necessary by providing inexpensive composting units. Composting reduces the quantity of waste to be disposed of, and provides valuable material for improving soil quality. Where composting at source is not practical, municipalities should consider large-scale collection of organic wastes for centralised composting. Materials which cannot be recycled or composted must be disposed of by landfilling or incineration. Landfills should be located outside the coastal strip. Existing intertidal, seashore and riverbank landfills should be closed as soon as possible. New landfills should meet the strictest environmental standards, including the lining of all sites. Direct Discharges of Municipal Waste to the Marine Environment Guidelines on direct discharges of industrial waste can be found in the Chapter on "Industry". These guidelines are generally relevant to municipal discharges as well. Litter Urban development and recreation generates substantial quantities of litter, causing enormous problems for Local Authorities and the marine and coastal environment. Guidelines for reducing litter are found in the Chapter on "Tourism". Urban Transport Alternatives to the use of the private automobile should be made
attractive and convenient. Bicycle use should be encouraged through
the creation of an extensive network of bicycle lanes throughout
the city, and motorists should be trained to take careful account
of cyclists.
Waterfront Re-development Abandoned buildings and derelict areas often represent sites of historic interest and can be refurbished for the purposes of private residential use, cultural activities, tourism or recreation. In coastal regions, such development could assist in the diversification of tourism, leading to decreased pressure in natural coastal areas. Public access to waterfront re-development sites (e.g. by extension of public transport lines), combined with efforts to encourage public interest in visiting these areas (e.g. developing public gardens and promenades, museums) will help to promote their viability. Harbours and Port Development and Pollution Control Guidelines can be found in the shipping the Chapter on "Transport". REFERENCES: Urbanisation
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