12.1. Status and Trends

Within the European Union, demand in the transport sector has been growing steadily since the 1970s, usually running parallel to the growth of GDP (European Commission 1993).  Similar trends can be seen elsewhere in Europe. The transport of goods has increased by about 50% over the last 20 years, with road transport making up the lion's share - road transport now accounts for 70% of the total transport of goods. In contrast, the transport of goods by rail decreased by 15%. Maritime transport of goods increased by 35% between 1975 and 1985 but has since levelled off (Ibid).  Passengers also prefer to travel by road - passenger transport has increased by 85% in the last 20 years, primarily by private car. Rail transport increased by 25% and bus by 45%, but in both cases, their relative share decreased. Air transport is growing at the fastest rate, having quadrupled in volume during this time(Ibid).

Without new policies, the trends of the last 20 years are likely to continue. Road traffic is expected to increase by 30% in 2000 over 1985 levels, accompanied by a 10-15% increase in rail traffic. Air traffic is also expected to increase significantly.(Ibid) ,(European Commission 1994) , (Fraga Iribarne and Jacques) The existing road network will not be sufficient to accommodate such growth, and attention is being paid to the development of a more efficient and diverse transport network, combining different maritime and terrestrial modes of transport along coastlines.(UNEP 1996) , (European Spatial Planning 1994)

According to one observer, the lack of attention to maritime transport in the European Common Transport Policy until recently appears to have inhibited the expansion of the maritime transport sector. "A major handicap which acts as a brake on the development of the ports of the inner and outer peripheries, both in the field of intra-European trade and trade with major continental ports, resides in the virtual hegemony of land transport, in particular, road haulage, which has radically transformed the European landscape since the beginning of European integration." (Fraga Iribarne and Jacques) As a result, many small and medium-sized ports in the peripheral maritime regions have been in decline over the last 20-30 years (Ibid).
 

12.2. Impacts

Railroads, highways and roads occupy long stretches of land and form barriers which lead to the fragmentation and/or isolation of habitats. The wider (and more heavily trafficked) the road, the greater the barrier it represents to animals. Road transport is the most land intensive: for example, the EU road network uses 1.3% of the total land area, as compared to 0.03% for rail (European Commission 1993).  In addition, the expanding network of roads and highways has provided access to once-remote, and consequently semi-protected, coastal areas. Greater access to remote coastal areas almost by definition results in less protection, a problem which is likely to increase given the increasing urbanisation of coastal areas. Finally, the impacts of motorways are also social, contributing to the break-up of community structures and causing significant noise pollution.

Transport infrastructure may cause changes in hydrology (both groundwater and streams) causing erosion and sedimentation. As the Blue Plan notes with regard to the Mediterranean (although this is equally true for other regions), "the road and rail transport infrastructure located in the vicinity of the coast inhibits the natural processes of shore formation and development and can cause significant coastal erosion, one of the feedback effects of which may be the destruction of the infrastructure itself, as has been the case with many railway lines in Italy." (Grenon & Batisse 1989)

There are additional land requirements for transport support facilities (petrol stations, parking lots, garages, railway stations, airports etc.), and land surrounding all modes of transport is degraded by air, noise and water pollution.(UNEP 1995)

In addition to the impacts on land, air pollution generated by the transport sector (especially cars, trucks and aeroplanes) is not only a threat to health, but has significant implications for other sectors. Acid rain has impacts on forests and fish stocks, eutrophication has impacts on coastal fisheries, and climate change is expected to have major land use implications, especially along the coast, over the long term. Air pollution and heavy vibrations are also causing the decay of historical buildings and other sites of historical interest - sites which are essential to continued tourist attraction. Heavy vibrations can also disrupt the stability of cliff slopes. However it was possible to some extent to achieve considerable improvements of air quality, in particular in the cities, by introducing strict limit values for motor vehicle emissions and by enhancing fuel quality.

Maritime transport is considered to be one of the most environmentally friendly modes of transport, but with an increased emphasis on high-speed travel, fuel consumption is likely to increase dramatically per kilometre travelled (Rosemarin 1996).  In addition, routine pollution from ships - both oil and litter -can sometimes be significant, and the transfer of alien organisms via ballast waters has caused serious and widespread problems.

The environmental impact of large ports is also significant, including problems of erosion of adjacent shoreline, loss of intertidal habitat, and damage to coastal ecosystems caused by the dredging and filling of wetlands during construction. Ports are also major sources of pollution as a result of discharges of waste, bilge washing, and the use of toxic chemicals and paints.

Special mention should also be made of the transport of hazardous materials at sea. Spills of such materials (oil spills being the best well known), can cause significant environmental damage with implications for economy (e.g. tourism, fisheries, agriculture) ecology, and health.
 

12.3. Opportunities

Despite opportunities and efforts to shift the burden of transport away from roads and the air towards railways and the sea, it is clear that lorries, buses and private automobiles will continue to transport the vast majority of goods and people. A new generation of automobile promises to decrease their environmental burden. Fully battery-operated vehicles and cars equipped with hydrogen fuel cells are also on the market or under development. The reduction in emissions from such vehicles can certainly contribute to an improvement in urban air quality. Depending on the power source used to generate the electricity or hydrogen fuel, they may also contribute to significant reductions in the generation of greenhouse gases.
 

12.4. Guidelines for Transport Development in Coastal Zones

For transport systems to be sustainable, they should be based as much as possible on renewable fuels, and should encourage environment-friendly modes of public transport. In general, the transport network should be diversified, with a shift in emphasis from road and air to rail and maritime modes of transport for freight and travel.
 
 

Airships are clean, quick and safe The Dutch office of Friends of the Earth is increasingly promoting the use of airships as an alternative transport mode. Modern airships are filled with helium (which does not burn), divided between a number of compartments so that in the event of a leak in one compartment the others will keep the ship aloft. With a speed of 140 kilometres per hour, airships are competitive with high speed rail in terms of time. Airships, however, do not require the same sorts of investments in infrastructure, as they can be moored on poles in existing airfields or stations. This is better for the environment, and 1/10th the cost of laying high speed rails. For long distances, the airship is not yet competetive with conventional air flights in terms of time or costs. Until and unless environmental costs are factored into the cost of a conventional flight (e.g. through a tax on kerosene), it will remain the cheaper alternative. Nonetheless, for charter flights, vacation destinations within Europe, and excursions and day tours, the airship is a clean and not overly expensive alternative to cars, busses and other conventional modes of transport. - Summarised and translated from Duurzame Wereld, the publication of the Dutch National Committee for Sustainable Development

Roads

All too often, roads are constructed on the basis of extending existing routes in a piecemeal approach. Routes should be planned as a whole, well in advance of constructing any particular segment, to ensure that sites of high natural value can be avoided. Future needs for road-widening should also be considered. Such planning should take account of the need to protect ecological networks or corridors from isolation.

The planning of new roads or highway networks which might affect areas of high natural value requires at least one full year of ecological study, allowing potentially valuable areas to be identified during their peak seasons. Such research may indicate areas which should be avoided altogether, or the means for mitigating potential impacts should construction proceed. Identifying concerns at the earliest possible stage of planning will help ensure that the most cost-effective solutions can be found.

Research into the relationship between the hydrology and ecology of an area should also be carried out prior to planning new routes. Important areas where road construction would damage this relationship should be avoided. Disruption of hydrology patterns as well as local ecology and migration patterns in the vicinity of the road should be minimised by the best state of the art engineering solutions.

Major roads or highways running parallel to the coast should be sited well inland. Access to the coast can be facilitated by small spur roads in areas of lowest environmental sensitivity. Raised, fenced pathways from parking areas to beaches can prevent trampling of vegetation.

Destruction, fragmentation or isolation of important habitats can be avoided by the use of bridges and tunnels in the design of the project.

Where habitat re-creation is used as a mitigation measure for a road construction project, the new habitat should be greater than or equal to the habitat which is destroyed. If the road dissects a habitat, new habitats should be created on both sides of the road, each of which should approximate the size of the original habitat. If possible, new habitat should provide links to other habitats of the same type.

Pollutants from road run-off should be treated before they are able to contaminate important habitats. A variety of natural treatment systems may be employed, such as the use of lagoon or reed bed systems which act as buffer zones, absorbing pollutants.

Long distance road haulage should be avoided in areas where adequate rail or shipping facilities exist. Major new projects which encourage road transport should be replaced with investments in rail or shipping networks.

Air Pollution

Smaller or low-emission vehicles can make a substantial contribution to the reduction of air pollution in coastal areas.

Hedges, shrubs or trees can be densely planted near major roads and highways for the purposes of absorbing air pollutants. Species should be selected on the basis of their pollution filtering capacities, the local soil type, and water availability. However, care should be taken to avoid the use of species which might be likely to colonise nearby habitats.

The use of leaded fuel should cease where it has not already been phased-out, and the sulphur content of petrol should be reduced as much as possible.

Urban Transport

Alternatives to the use of the private automobile can be made attractive and convenient. Bicycle use can be encouraged through the creation of an extensive network of bicycle lanes throughout the city, and motorists should be trained to take careful account of cyclists.

Transport and Tourism

No roads should be built or reconstructed in the coastal strip (300 meters) parallel to the coastline, nor through coastal habitats; main roads should be located several miles inland, with coastal access roads running perpendicular to the coast at specific locations. Off-road vehicles should not be permitted in dune areas or beaches or in other sensitive habitats, and parking should be limited to designated parking areas. In general, a traffic management plan should be considered during the environmental impact assessment process.

The use of private automobiles in the coastal strip can also be discouraged by locating parking garages and fuel stations outside of the area, with good links to the public transport facilities described above. Illegally parked cars can be towed away to discourage haphazard parking in natural areas. Off-road vehicles should be prohibited within the no-development zone or other environmentally sensitive coastal areas.

Air Transport

A major expansion of air traffic and infrastructure in coastal regions is not advisable. A careful evaluation of the ways in which environment-friendly alternatives can be promoted should be carried out instead. The most polluting and noisy aircraft should be phased out as quickly as possible.

Shipping

Harbours

Waste Disposal in Ports

Regulations should be introduced making it mandatory for ships to deliver all garbage and wastes to a port reception facility before leaving port, taking into account the special situations of ferries and other boats which make frequent departures.

Pressure can be exerted through Port State Control .  The Dutch Promotion in Ports of Marpol (PPM) system provides an excellent example which could be implemented in ports throughout Europe.

Waste disposal at Sea

Waste management should be an integral part of maritime training programmes, including the certification process. Ships should contain sufficient onboard space and facilities to store waste until it can be disposed of properly onshore. All ships should maintain a 'waste log'.

There should be increased surveillance to detect the illegal discharge of waste from ships and leisure craft.

Ships: Oil use and discharge

The development of a chemical marking system for ballast and oil wastes should be vigorously pursued.

When necessary, a system of routing for navigation should be established, according with rules of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO).

Air Pollution

The use of low-sulphur fuels is recommended.

Anti-Fouling Paints

Oil spills

New permits for offshore oil activities (including for terminals and pipelines) should not be granted until oil spill contingency plans have been approved, and sufficient capacity exists to combat any oil spills which may occur.

The tanker industry should replace single hulled with double hulled tankers or other ships which provide equivalent protection. Incentives for making these replacements could include the imposition of higher insurance rates and harbour dues for single hulled vessels. In addition, ships using segregated ballast tanks should be offered lower harbour rates.

Mandatory insurance systems, in accordance with the relevant International Conventions – International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (Brussels, 1969), and its Protocol (London, 1992) and International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea (London, 1996) – should be enforced to ensure that adequate compensation for damages is available.

Adequate, prompt and effective compensation should be available to those, who suffer damage caused by incidents in connection with the carriage by sea of oil or other hazardous and noxious substances. To this end:

• States, that have not done so, should become parties to the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (Brussels, 1969); International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (Brussels, 1971) ; Protocol to amend the International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (London, 1992), and Protocol to amend the International Convention on civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (London 1992);

• States should undertake all necessary steps for the promotion of the entry into force of the International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea (London, 1996).

There should be greater duplication of ships equipment, particularly including twin engines, preferably twin screws with twin rudders and separate steering systems on al new tankers and other vessels carrying dangerous or polluting cargoes. In addition, transponders should be installed on all ships.

Harbour tugs are not an adequate alternative for offshore salvage capability. Salvage tugs should be positioned at strategic points on the European coastal water to provide emergency towing capacity. States should always assume control and direction of a salvage operation when there is a threat to the environment.

In the aftermath of an oil spill, an environmental evaluation is necessary to ensure that lessons are learned with regard to preventing future accidents and clean-up measures which cause unnecessary additional damage to stressed ecosystems.

Radioactive Waste Transport

REFERENCES: Transport
 

• "Action Plan", European Regions for a Safe and Clean Coast (draft)", June, 1996.
• Anderson, P., et al., "Roads and Nature Conservation: Guidance on impacts, mitigation and enhancement," English Nature, February, 1993.
• Coalition Clean Baltic, "An NGO Vision of an Agenda 21 for the Baltic Sea Region", October, 1996.
• Council of Europe Committee of Ministers Partial Agreement in the social and public Helth Field, Resolution AP (93) 2 on antifoulants.
• Council of Europe, Risk assessment of antifoulants, Report prepared by Anders Johnson and Robert Luttik in collaboration with the Ad hoc Group of Experts on Non-Agricultural Pesticides, Health Protection of the Consumer, 1996.
• English Nature, Campaign for a Living Coast, "Estuary Management Plans: A co-ordinator's guide", ISBN 1 85716 121 1, English Nature, 1993.
• European Commission, "Trends in Transport Technology", in Innovation & Technology Transfer, 4/96, July, 1996.
• Fraga Iribane, M. and Robert, J., "Land/Sea Interfaces in the Periphery, The Essential Elements of a European Regional Development Policy", Conference of Peripheral Maritime Regions and the Fundacion Galicia - Europa.
• Maurer, J. "New Aspects of Trans-European Networks from a Central European Viewpoint" in Council of Europe - European Commission "Development perspectives for the wider European territory, Proceedings of a joint conference held in Dresden 15-16 November 1993", ISBN 92-827-3927-9, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg 1995.
• Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (The Netherlands), "P.P.M. Promotion in Ports of Marpol."
• Queensland Government, "Green Paper; Coastal Protection Strategy, Proposals for managing Queensland's coast," 1991.
• Swedish Society for Nature Conservation, "Marine Environment Action Plan," May, 1990.