| European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones | |||
| XI. TOURISM AND RECREATION
11.1. Status and Trends The tourism industry is the world's fastest growing industry, and has been an important part of the economic development of many of the poorer areas of Europe, especially in the South. The growth rate for tourism in Europe is 3.7% per year, projected to continue through 2000 (European Commission D.G. XXIII 1995). It has, however, been losing market share to Eastern Asia and the Pacific (European Commission 1995a) and an additional 10% loss in market share is forecast for 2000, which could lead to a fall in the average growth rate (European Commission D.G. XXIII 1995). The Mediterranean is the leading tourist destination world-wide and 90% of the tourists travelling to the Mediterranean are heading for French, Spanish and Italian coasts (German Fed. Agency for Nature Conserv. 1997). Even here the industry is suffering from increased competition and a decline in quality due to the impacts of mass tourism (Fraga Iribarne and Jacques). Trends indicate that tourists are becoming increasingly interested
in higher quality tourism experiences with particular interest in
cultural, historic, and natural sites.(Ibid),(COAST 1995),(Roos
and Tromp 1994) 11.2. Impacts The sheer speed and scale of tourism development has had a major impact on the environment. In addition although many local people have benefited from the increase in prosperity which tourism brings, the social and cultural effects are significant. In addition over-development and environmental degradation have led to many areas losing their appeal. As tourist numbers drop off the ability to maintain the infrastructure becomes more difficult. Where erosion has become a problem, as has happened in many areas where development has occurred in vulnerable zones, the cost of maintenance can be particularly high and often has to be borne by the local tax-payer. Developments which take environmental consideration into account are likely to be more sustainable in the long term and less costly to maintain. The impacts of tourism in coastal areas arise from the construction of infrastructure (e.g. hotels, marinas, transport, waste treatment facilities, groynes) and from recreation (golf courses, water sports, thematic parks, beach access and parking, etc.). The problems in this sector differ from other economic sectors in that the degradation of the environment results in the degradation of the industry itself with knock-on effects in other industries. As one expert has noted, "If the coastal areas damage their appeal for example, by water pollution, their main source of income dies, and this also destroys the opportunities for attracting other activities besides tourism. The coastal areas lose their strong point and with it their value to important networks. Other networks for tourism, for example, overseas, would gain further in importance. The negative economic and social consequences could not be compensated even by large transfer payments."(Maurer 1995) Infrastructure
Massive tourist facilities, particularly hotels and apartment complexes, were constructed on European dunes, beaches and cliffs from the 1960s to the 1980s. As a result of this sea-front development, large-scale beach and dune erosion occurred. This is not only an ecological problem but an economic one: facilities sited on beaches are susceptible to storm damage and the effects of accelerated sea level rise. Governments have been forced to compensate for coastal erosion and flooding risks through large-scale beach nourishment projects and the construction of dykes and have even constructed hard coastal defence structures to create beaches where none previously existed. The construction of marinas consumes a great deal of land, and often causes significant harm to coastal systems due to their preferred siting in areas protected from the open sea, e.g. on shallow coasts or lagoons which may require dredging (German Fed. Agency for Nature Conserv. 1997). They can also have a devastating impact on coastal processes on the down drift side of the construction leading in many cases to severe erosion and loss of beaches, and threats to hotels and other facilities. Tourism also has impacts on environmental quality – the treatment and disposal of solid and/or liquid wastes, particularly during peak tourist seasons, may be inadequate or at worst non-existent. A large quantity of water is consumed not only for drinking but for showers, laundry, swimming pools and the maintenance of golf courses, which can be a major problem in regions where freshwater resources are limited. Air pollution from aeroplanes, cars and buses transporting tourists to and from their destinations is a problem which extends far beyond the local tourism site. Given that coastal regions are primary tourist destinations, sensitive marine and coastal environments and coastal communities suffer dramatically. Recreation The impact of recreational activities may be associated with intensive tourist development or non-tourist recreational pressures in urban and/or rural areas. Noise from motor boats and jet skis, cars and buses, nightlife and other activities is one of the more significant problems arising from recreation. Golf courses have a long association with coastal areas. In many
areas, long-established links courses are an integral part of the
local economy and many of them have helped to conserve valuable
fragments of dune habitat from encroaching urbanisation and agriculture.
In southern European countries golf course development is a more
recent occurrence ? primarily 1960s to early 1990s. The main areas
involved are Portugal (Algarve), Spain and the French Riviera. These
are resort destinations, and the golf courses are normally associated
with substantial real estate development, hotels and related facilities.
The impacts of such developments have included modification of dune
soils, loss of natural vegetation, disturbance of sensitive wildlife
and extra demands on limited water resources. In some cases, however,
the golf course element of these developments have had a beneficial
effect on wildlife, serving as sanctuaries from hunting and grazing
pressures for example. Such potential benefits are negated when
the density of built development encroaches significantly onto the
greenspace of the golf course areas, or where the original design
and construction did not allow for adequate retention of natural
habitat (Stubbs 1997). 11.3. Opportunities The erosion of beaches and consequent loss of recreational areas due to the construction of tourist facilities on the coast has led a number of countries to adopt coastal laws or strengthen existing laws which include non-development zones of between 100 and 300 meters outside urbanised areas (Nordberg 1995). This has slowed the process of development in the coastal strip. If these and other measures (e.g. those listed below) succeed in the development of a sustainable tourist industry, there are numerous opportunities for nature conservation. Given the increasing interest in high quality natural and cultural experiences, nature conservation can only help to reverse the decline in market share of European coastal destinations. Tourism also provides important opportunities for strengthening local industries such as agriculture and fisheries, traditional crafts, and so forth. Where industries are in decline, tourism ventures can help supplement declining income. A number of programmes are being carried out in Europe which are
designed to encourage sustainable tourism and recreation. The European
"Blue Flag Campaign", for example, rewards communities which meet
strict environmental and safety criteria in managing beaches and
marinas. Another example is the "Committed to Green" programme of
the European Golf Association Ecology Unit, which is developing
environmental principles for managing golf courses. These kinds
of programmes should be encouraged as well as international initiatives
for sustainable tourism which are now being developed on the basis
of decision IV/15 § 14, on Tourism and biological diversity,
adopted by the Fourth meeting of the Conference of Parties to the
Convention Biological Diversity. 11.4. Guidelines for Tourism Development in Coastal Areas Tourist development should be carried out in such a way as to ensure that the environmental, cultural, and social diversity of the area is protected and enhanced. First and foremost, it needs to meet the needs of the local host community without compromising the natural or cultural values which are attractive to tourists in the first place, or the economic viability of existing sustainable commercial activities. Local communities can be supported, for example, by the use and promotion of locally produced food, wines, souvenirs. The attitudes of local communities and civil society in general should be incorporated into development plans at the earliest stages, well before planners become wedded to any particular decision. In addition, it should be determined whether the carrying capacity of the local environment can sustain a new tourism development, adhering to the Precautionary Principle, before further planning is allowed to proceed. Inland attractions should be promoted to relieve pressures on coastal beaches. Zoning of coastal lands for specific recreational uses, seasons, or for nature and wildlife conservation should be encouraged, and allow for the possibility of establishing disturbance-free zones in the habitats of threatened or endangered species. Siting of Buildings and Infrastructure Development in coastal regions which does not require a coastal location can be concentrated outside of the coastal strip. Guidelines related to the siting of buildings and infrastructure can be found in the Chapter on "Urbanisation". Design and Planning The possibility of refurbishing existing buildings and facilities should be fully explored before any new construction is considered. In some areas care should be taken where older buildings may be the refuge of breeding birds or bats. Where new facilities are considered necessary, they should be compatible with the architecture and environment of the surrounding area. Large buildings which impair quality of scenic views should be avoided. Innovative designs, technologies and construction techniques should be encouraged and supported. During the planning stage, past use of the site should be investigated to determine whether digging will uncover contaminated land, as this will require special treatment. Facilities should be designed to avoid changes in near-shore sediment transport patterns, the geomorphology of the coastline, and/or water quality. Before any coastal installation is built in or near to a coastal location, a thorough study of the geomorphological regime is essential. This will reveal the way in which sedimentary patterns affect existing habitat development and provide a basis for assessing the likely changes to sedimentary transport systems consequent upon erecting any structures. The construction of traditional shoreline promenades should be avoided, as these will disturb coastal dynamics in much the same way that roads, rows of hotels, and other such barriers do. Alternative designs which can be integrated into the natural environment should be considered. Interference with natural run-off patterns should also be avoided. Activities which increase the volume or toxicity of run-off and which should be avoided include: extensive paving (roads, parking lots), destruction of vegetation and the use of fertilizer and/or pesticides (e.g. for maintaining golf courses). Designs should ensure that natural vegetation is left intact as much as possible. Where this is not possible, indigenous species should be used for landscaping. Landscaping should be planned so as to avoid the need for excessive watering (and appropriately treated effluent should be used for watering vegetation). Buildings should be positioned and designed in such a way as to save energy, by reducing the need for artificial lighting, heating, cooling or ventilation and making use of renewable energy technologies (e.g. solar). Construction Construction materials should be environmentally friendly and conducive to re-use or recycling. The use of toxic building materials such as certain plastics (particularly PVC), and chemicals harmful to climate and the atmosphere (e.g. CFCs, HFCs, HCFCs) should be avoided. Materials which require minimal energy inputs are also favoured (e.g. unfired bricks, wood instead of aluminium). The use of glue (e.g. for connecting prefabricated housing units) should be avoided where possible, because of both its fumes and its permanence - glue prevents materials from being re-used at a later time. Finishing wood with natural oils and paints (based on linseed oil and pigmented with iron oxide, for example) is preferable to the use of permanent paints (normal latex or oil-based). The use of traditional lime mortar will permit the re-use of bricks when a building is eventually torn down: modern mortars are stronger than bricks so that when brick buildings are demolished, the bricks break before the mortar. During construction, all efforts should be made to avoid trampling or otherwise damaging vegetation, dunes and the beach. Materials should be stored in designated places, preferably on elevated platforms. Fuel and chemicals should be stored on an impervious structure. Leaking or empty oil drums should be removed immediately, and soils which may have absorbed spills should be removed. Dust should be damped down to avoid covering sensitive habitats. Polluted wastewater should be collected and removed, and under no circumstances should be allowed to enter the natural drainage system, including ponds or marshes. The use of concrete should be carefully controlled to minimise the chance of leakage into watercourses. Once facilities are built, efforts should be made to monitor impacts on the coastal environment. If unforeseen impacts arise, activities should be modified to minimise or mitigate environmental impacts. Energy Conservation Wasteful energy practices should be discontinued. For example the installation of energy saving devices such as compact fluorescent lighting should be promoted while the installation of energy wasters such as electric hand and hair dryers in toilets and bathrooms should be avoided. Tourists should be reminded to conserve energy, for instance by switching off lights when they leave the room. Wastewater Treatment Adequate wastewater treatment is an essential component of tourism development. Guidelines can be found in the Chapter on "Water Management". Solid Waste Treatment Provisions for the handling and treatment of solid waste generated by tourist facilities should be arranged prior to their development in close co-operation with municipal authorities where relevant. Guidelines on solid waste treatment are included in the Chapter on "Urbanisation". Litter Coastal and marine waste management strategies should form an integral part of coastal zone and/or tourism management plans. A "deposit on return" system for drinks containers and plastic carrier bags should be considered as part of such a plan. Provisions should be made to keep beaches clean and free from litter, by providing adequate waste receptacles, sanitary facilities, carrying out beach clean-ups, etc. "Sharps" boxes should be provided for the disposal of glass, needles and similar items. Shops, restaurants, hotels and other businesses located near the seafront should adopt proper waste management practices, including reducing their wastes and preventing it from escaping into the marine environment. They should also make efforts to reduce litter generated by their customers, including by providing sufficient waste receptacles. Efforts to recycle should be encouraged by making make waste separation receptacles conveniently available to guests. Businesses should be encouraged to avoid the use of disposable products (plates, utensils, table cloths, cups, toiletries). When disposable products are used, they should be made of recyclable materials. Recycled and non-chlorine bleached paper should be used whenever paper products are provided. Water Conservation The size of any tourism project should be commensurate with the
potential for the local hydrologic cycle to sustain it without depleting
groundwater reserves.
It should be anticipated that tourists (particularly those from developed countries) are likely to use more water than local populations in areas where water resources are scarce. Water saving toilets, shower heads and faucets (e.g. those that release water only when the user's hands are present) can be installed, towels and linens can be changed only when necessary. Tourists should be informed about the need to conserve water (see checklist for tourists). Transport and Tourism: Tourist facilities should be designed in such a way as to make walking and cycling attractive to tourists. However, especially in the coastal strip, tourist movement should be organised and enforced in such a way that deterioration caused by trampling is avoided. Facilities to rent and/or store bicycles should be conveniently located. Free or low-cost shuttle buses which run on clean fuels should provide a viable alternative to the use of private automobiles. Hotels and resorts should provide walking/cycling path maps for tourists upon arrival. Additional guidelines related to Transport and Tourism can be found in the Chapter on "Transport". Air Transport Guidelines on air transport are included in the Chapter on"Transport" Education Informing tourists, tour operators, and staff about ways to reduce environmental impacts should be an integral component of tourism development plans. Coastal visitor centres should be made interesting and attractive to encourage tourists to make use of them. Educational materials and exhibits emphasising respect for the local environment and culture should be provided by all major hotel establishments. Prior to leaving their home countries, tourists should be encouraged to learn about the customs and traditions of the destination areas. In addition, tourists should be encouraged to choose tour operators that have a written policy favouring environmental protection. Recreational Activities Access to previously undeveloped coastal areas for recreational purposes should only be permitted if the nature and/or character of the area will not be harmed. Facilities for sports which attract large numbers of spectators should not be sited on the coast. Beach Maintenance The indiscriminate mechanised cleaning of beaches should be ceased. Such practices destroy dunes and may impede revegetation. Dune regeneration and beach revegetation should be addressed as a matter of priority where appropriate. Golf Courses In general, new golf courses should not be located in sand dunes, coastal meadows, or other natural or semi-natural habitat within the coastal zone. Alternative sites should be considered, for example in set-aside or unproductive agricultural lands. Groundwater resources or water resources used for (sustainable) agricultural production should not be used to support new golf courses in coastal areas. In the design and construction of new golf courses, natural vegetation should be left intact as much as possible. Comprehensive Environmental Management Programmes should be implemented for all golf courses, covering the following areas:
Water Conservation on Golf Courses Golf courses should avoid depleting groundwater reserves. In choosing turfgrass varieties, careful account should be taken of local climatic conditions. Where irrigation is necessary, the Environmental Management Programme should ensure, inter alia:
Integrated turf management embraces the concepts of appropriate fertilisation and pest management. Water Sports Speed limits of no more than five knots should be established for
all motorised vessels travelling through shallow coastal waters.
Reduced speeds are also necessary in or near sensitive areas such
as bird sanctuaries, seal reserves, and inner archipelago areas.
Jet skis or other loud motorised vessels or vehicles should not be permitted in or near sensitive wildlife areas, or areas where people have come specifically to enjoy the calm and quiet of nature. Corridors for water sports should be established. Scuba divers should not be permitted to collect coral, sponges,
or other rare or sensitive plants or animals. REFERENCES: Tourism and Recreation
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