| European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones | ||
| X. INDUSTRY
10.1. Status and Trends Significant parts of European coastlines are industrialised, particularly near river mouths. The most intensely developed areas include large estuaries such as the Po, Humber, Thames, Rhine, Scheldt, and Eems. In many regions of Europe, heavy industry is generally in decline as a result of increased competition,(European Commission 1994), (Iribane and Jacques), (Grenon & Batisse 1989) although in some cases, heavy manufacturing industries have been, or are expected to be replaced by high-technology industries.(European Commission 1994), (Grenon & Batisse 1989) There are some indications that the decline in heavy industry may be stabilising (European Commission 1994) although the likelihood that production will return to previous levels is remote, at least in the European Union (Molle & Verkennis 1995). The extent to which this trend is relevant to coastal areas is not clear, as this will depend at least in part on the further development of the combined transport network, particularly as it affects the viability of ports and their connection to industrial centres in the hinterland. Obligations in Europe and internationally require increasing safeguards
for the coastal and marine environment. For example, States bordering
the North Sea the Mediterranean and the Baltic have committed themselves
to phasing out discharges of substances which are toxic, persistent
and liable to bioaccumulate, including endocrine disrupters, (in
the case of the North Sea, and Baltic within one generation, i.e.
25 years). The same phase-out commitment, by the year 2020, is likely
to be adopted in July 1998 for the entire Northeast Atlantic, from
Gibraltar to the Arctic, at the OSPAR ministerial conference. It
is clear that coastal industries will need to further decrease their
environmental impacts. Those industries which have made progress
in this respect often report that improvements in plant design and
product substitution have generated positive economic impacts as
well. 10.2. Impacts Industrial production is highly dependent upon the availability of water, and in many industrial countries is the greatest water consumer. According to UNIDO, industry in Eastern Europe accounts for as much as 80% of total water use (UNIDO 1994). Inappropriate siting of industrial activities in sensitive areas has led to the loss of coastal wetlands and habitat in every European coastal region. Industrial discharges of hazardous substances into coastal waters can have both lethal and sub-lethal effects on animals and humans. Even when located inland, industry can have significant impacts on coastal regions. When rivers or coastal aquifers are used to receive industrial wastes, for example, pollution impacts continue to occur far downstream. Land used for production, fuel supply, storage and waste disposal as well as the surrounding area (land, fresh water, and sea) degraded by pollution, is generally rendered unsuitable for other uses. Industrial construction causes significant harm to the landscape of the site and surrounding area, and spoils the visual perception of the landscape. Sand and gravel excavation for the construction industry, for nourishment, and dredging for navigation channels and harbours, may damage coastal ecosystems in a variety of ways. Excavation and dredging is particularly damaging in shallow, near-shore areas, causing alterations in sediment transport mechanisms and erosion. Dumping of dredge spoils at sea can smother benthic flora and fauna, alter local hydrological regimes, and release toxic contaminants to the marine environment. There is concern also that the dumping of dredge spoils may be used to circumvent the prohibition of the dumping of industrial wastes at sea. In this regard the parties to the London International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) should be encouraged to adopt guidelines which would prevent such abuse. Under certain circumstances, however, the deposition of dredged
material (e.g. for beach nourishment or habitat re-creation) may
be beneficial for coastal ecosystems. In these cases, it is essential
that materials have been stripped of any potential pollutants. 10.3. Opportunities Sustainable industrial development is increasingly being approached
through the application of clean production techniques at the design
stage of products and production processes. Although considerable
progress has been made with "cradle to grave" approaches to the
utilisation of resources and reduction of waste streams, attention
is increasingly being paid to "cradle to cradle" approaches. In
other words, products should be designed so that they can be reused
again and again, with component parts replaced or upgraded as necessary.
This form of waste minimisation is showing enormous scope for cost
savings to business and for the prevention of pollution.
10.4. Guidelines for Industry in Coastal Areas Industries operating within the coastal zone have a special obligation to ensure their activities have minimal impact on the marine and coastal environment. The potential for adopting cleaner production approaches to production processes, with an emphasis on prevention of pollution and other impacts at the source should be fully investigated. Siting of Buildings and Infrastructure Guidelines can be found in the Chapter on "Urbanisation". Energy Conservation and Air Pollution Industries should strive for energy efficiency and conservation throughout their entire lifecycle, from the design and construction of plants through the packaging and delivery of end products, and ultimately through the re-use and/or recycling of wastes. Products which are no longer in use should be taken back by the manufacturer, and component parts should be re-used or recycled to the maximum extent possible. New industrial plants can be designed to run on the cleanest possible
fuels. The strictest emission standards for NO2, SO2, CO2 and methane
should be applied to all plants throughout Europe.
Direct Discharges European Governments have recognised the need to eliminate marine pollution from land-based sources, and have committed themselves to taking far reaching measures in the North Sea, the Baltic and the Mediterranean. Specifically, the discharge and emission of hazardous substances (currently defined as those that are toxic, persistent and liable to bioaccumulate, including endocrine disrupters) is to be phased out. Industry and coastal managers should take account of these commitments by adopting the "cradle to cradle" approach to product design, utilising clean technology and techniques, substituting where necessary the use of hazardous substances with non-hazardous substances, and designing closed-loop production processes to avoid discharges and emissions to the environment. As a matter of highest priority, the production and use of organohalogen substances (including chlorine and chlorinated substances) should cease. No new permits should be granted for the discharge of hazardous substances, and existing permits should be phased out to comply with the commitment described above. No new hazardous substances should be introduced to the environment. In the interim, facilities for collecting and disposing of hazardous wastes as safely as possible (outside of the coastal zone) should be established. Sand and Gravel Excavation and Dredging Sand or gravel extraction should only take place in coastal water at a depth where coastal processes are not compromised (i.e. below the so-called active profile of the coastal zone), and never in ecologically sensitive areas. However while this depth is generally appropriate in relation to the influence of normal tides and storms, evidence suggests that sediment can be moved at lower levels by long period waves, residual tidal movement and gradiental currents. The impact of this on adjacent coastal areas which rely on sea borne sediment for their continued development is an important and often overlooked issue. Extraction activities should be timed to avoid conflict with seasonal events such as fish or bird migration. Turbidity plumes should be minimised by utilisation of the best available technology and practices. Extraction should be as "dry" as possible, and working and sailing speed should be regulated so as to reduce environmental impacts. When aggregates with a high content of fines are extracted, equipment with the capacity of retaining very fine particles should be used, if appropriate in conjunction with silt curtains. The excavation site should be limited in order to facilitate later recolonisation. Complete removal of the bottom sediment should be avoided. Consideration should be given to make better use of harbour and other dredging. Care should be taken with dredge spoils contaminated with hazardous substances which should not be dumped at sea or used for nourishment. Industrial tie-ins The recycling of grey water or treated sewage for other purposes (irrigation, fertilisation, etc.) implies that industrial inputs of contaminated wastewater to municipal sewage treatment systems should be discontinued as soon as possible. Where closed loop production systems have not yet been established,
pollution and environmental degradation will continue unless all
industrial effluents are treated for nitrogen and phosphorus prior
to discharge. REFERENCES: Industry
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