| European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones |
| IX. FOREST MANAGEMENT
9.1. Status and Trends Only in the northern countries of Europe is forestry an important
economic factor in coastal regions. Along other European coasts,
most forests are planted primarily for the purposes of sand dune
stabilisation, tourism and prevention of soil erosion. The economic
profits of forestry within the coastal strip are generally marginal
because of the influence of the sea. This has led to decreased attention
to coastal forestry as a source of wood. Forests have important
economic value, however, as attractors of tourism and recreational
activities. 9.2. Impacts The presence of native forests is clearly a benefit to the environment, including the coastal environment. They provide important habitats for plants and animals, including many endangered species. They also act as a critical sink for carbon, thereby reducing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The impacts of other sectors on the health and biodiversity of forest ecosystems are far greater than the impacts of forestry on other sectors. Intensive forestry, however, can have negative impacts on water systems, and ultimately the coastal and marine environment. It can cause nutrients, chemical fertilisers and pesticides, and other substances to reach coastal waterways, and the planting of monoculture systems (CCB 1992) can reduce the biodiversity of forest ecosystems. Afforestation of coastal dunes with non-native species, primarily for the purposes of coastal defence, has disturbed the natural dynamics of coastal systems. Dune fields which have been cultivated or overgrazed often suffer from wind erosion and begin to wander, sometimes towards inhabited areas or important agricultural land. Dunes were therefore often stabilised through afforestation with alien tree species (primarily pines)(Van der Meulen & Salman 1996). This practice still continues today in many areas. The most significant environmental impacts of afforestation in the coastal zone include the loss of natural vegetation and the lowering of groundwater tables. Eucalyptus plantations are even more damaging due to intensive bark production, which is harmful to the soil and prevents the development of natural undergrowth. Planted forests, especially on coastal plains, also change visual aspects of the landscape. In the Mediterranean, forest fires represent a major threat to
coastal forests, with consequent impacts on the coastal environment.
According to UNEP, "...forests and woodlands lost to fire in nine
countries of the northern and eastern Mediterranean in 1988 exceeded
570,000 ha, accounting for an annual loss of US $500 million. Due
to low productivity and insufficiently exploited economic possibilities
of coastal forests, the local population is rarely interested in
their protection. Forest fires can have other consequences, such
as ecosystem damage, threat to biodiversity, and degradation of
vegetation cover, and may contribute to an acceleration of erosion
process leading to the eventual loss of the soil layer."(UNEP
1995) 9.3. Opportunities Rehabilitation of forests on dunes including scrub and tree removal
is an option. However in many areas the forests are now mature and
have developed their own nature conservation interest. These should
be reviewed with a view to management which seeks to reinstate semi-natural
woodland, a habitat which on sand dunes at least is very rare. Coastal
woodlands are also favoured areas for recreational pursuits particularly
in the Mediterranean where they provide opportunities to picnic
in the outdoors in the relative shade of the woodland. When combined
with development of open woodland composed of native trees, these
attributes could provide a means of increasing the size of habitats
in some coastal areas where they have been destroyed. Efforts to
conserve or regenerate natural or semi-natural coastal forests,
and to create greater variation in forests or plantations where
there is little biological diversity, could provide a valuable contribution
to the development of the Pan-European Coastal and Marine Ecological
Network (PECMEN). 9.4. Guidelines for Forestry in Coastal Areas Site adapted forest management plans which are incorporated into integrated coastal management plans will improve their environmental sensitivity. Coastal forests can be designed and managed in a way which ensures the conservation of wildlife and the environment, including through the conservation of water, soil and natural processes. Protection should also be afforded to landscape, natural and cultural historical and recreational values of coastal forests. Native forests are especially valuable and should be protected as much as possible from conversion to other uses. Planting native species is to be encouraged along with natural regeneration where possible. Maintaining natural cycles in the forest ecosystem will help sustain the local influence of forest ecosystems on atmospheric humidity, temperature and wind velocity. In commercially managed woodlands, a permanent vegetative cover should be maintained through selection cutting, group-selection, shelter-wood or under-planting during regeneration. The adaptability of forests to a wide range of natural and human-induced threats can be increased by planting site-adapted tree species and through the development of varied forest structures and cultivation systems. The application of pesticides and nitrogen fertilisers in forests should be avoided. Where this is not possible, measures should be taken to prevent the leaching of nitrogen and other pollutants. Forest drainage should not take place within the coastal strip, except on sand dunes. Clear felling should be avoided altogether. Where felling takes place, environmentally favourable machinery and technologies should be used to minimise damage to forest ecosystems. Wetland areas should be increased as much as possible. Wetlands should not be drained for the purposes of establishing new forest plantations. For all drainage operations, sedimentation ponds should be constructed for humus and other substances. Significant quantities of dying and dead wood should be left standing or lying on the forest floor, to support birds, mammals and fungi, including endangered species. Forest Fires Fire can be both damaging and regenerating. Fire prevention and forest protection, including the use of firebreaks, can form part of a plan to determine appropriate management. Dune Afforestations Dune afforestations should have no wood production function, and
in principle the planting of trees on a large scale should not be
carried out in dune areas. Where previous afforestations have been
removed, the soil should be left undisturbed to allow species from
old wood habitats to colonise these stands. REFERENCES: Forests
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