| European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones | |||
| VIII. FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE
8.1. Status and Trends Coastal waters serve as important nursery, feeding and spawning areas for the world's fisheries, and much of the global marine fish catch comes from important habitats in nearshore waters, inter-tidal areas, estuaries and bays. Europe supports an intensive fishing industry. In the North Sea, for example, each year 50-60% of the total biomass of the main commercial fish stocks is removed (Seas at Risk 1994). The contribution of fishing to the GDP of European countries (usually less than 1% ) (European Commission 1994a) belies the importance of its role in the economies of coastal communities, both directly and indirectly. It is estimated that for every job at sea, there are four or five on shore in fishing-related industries (European Commission 1994a). Serious depletion of fish stocks (from overfishing and discarding bycatch, improved fishing methods, climatic change and pollution) has led to the forced reduction in catches and decreased employment opportunities.(European Commission 1994 , (Iribarne and Jacques), (VASAB 1994) Fishing fleets now tend to concentrate in fewer and larger ports, and the smaller ports are suffering, particularly where there are few alternatives to the fishing and fish processing industries.(European Commission 1995), (European Commission 1994) The Atlantic Arc region, which has few large ports, is especially likely to suffer in the face of these trends. Indeed, the significant reduction in fleets as a result of EU regulations is already having an impact here (Shipman 1996). In general, the decline in offshore fisheries has led to increased pressure on coastal fisheries (OECD 1993). In the Mediterranean, for example, high seas trawlers have been forced to move closer to shore, competing with inshore artisanal trawling and other activities (UNEP 1996). Unless stricter policy measures are implemented, the decline in fishing is likely to continue. There is an increasing trend towards fish farming, however, with
particular interest in shellfish (Iribarne and Jacques). In
the European Union, for example, farmed fish and shellfish account
for around 7% of aquaculture output worldwide, providing employment
for more than 80,000 people in coastal areas (European
Commission 1994a). The continued growth of the industry
will depend in part on its ability to overcome environmental problems
and avoid increased production costs (European
Commission 1995). If successful, the industry can provide
new sources of employment, and reduce Europe's dependence on imported
fish. 8.2. Impacts Environmental impacts of fishing include overfishing of commercial
fish stocks, damage to the marine ecosystem as a result of loss
or discarded fishing gear, the incidental take of non-target species
(including marine mammals), oil pollution and litter from fishing
vessels, and pollution from fish processing plants. These impacts,
combined with problems of coastal and marine habitat destruction,
land and marine-based pollution, and the introduction of alien species,
have serious consequences for aquatic diversity, and ultimately
for the health of fish stocks themselves (Intermediate
Technology 1996). 8.3. Opportunities
As a follow-up to the first Earth Summit in 1992 and the subsequent UN Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, FAO undertook the development of a global Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. An extensive process of consultation was conducted, and was unanimously approved in October, 1995 by the FAO Conference. The Code is directed toward "members and non-members of FAO, fishing entities, subregional, regional and global organizations, whether governmental or non-governmental, and all persons concerned with the conservation of fishery resources and management and development of fisheries, such as fishers, those engaged in processing and marketing of fish and fishery products and other users of the aquatic environment in relation to fisheries. "(FAO 1995) The Code is broad in scope, covering fisheries management and operations,
aquaculture, integration of fisheries into coastal area management,
post-harvest practices and trade, and fisheries research. Its measures
relate not only to technical issues, but also to social issues such
as the fair and equitable treatment of fishworkers. If it is widely
implemented, the Code will represent a major step forward in the
conservation of marine biodiversity.
8.4. Guidelines for Fisheries and Aquaculture The 1995 FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, particularly Article 10 on the Integration of Fisheries into Coastal Area Management, should be implemented by all coastal states and fishing communities. The UN Agreement for Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (New York, 1995) should also be implemented as quickly as possible. Fisheries management should adopt a precautionary approach in which the fundamental health of coastal and marine ecosystems is maintained. A lack of adequate data should not be considered grounds for postponing effective conservation measures. The optimum sustainable yield should be considered as a replacement for the maximum sustainable yield of any given fishery. Wherever possible, capture fishery strategies should be replaced by nurture fishery strategies managed by fishing communities. Capture methods which seriously damage or degrade coastal and marine ecosystems should be phased out, with priority given to environmentally safe fishing methods. The development and use of increasingly selective fishing gear and methods should be encouraged for both target and non-target species. By-catch, discards and waste should be minimised to the maximum extent possible. Large-scale pelagic driftnet fishing should be ceased in accordance with the United Nations Resolution on this subject. For stocks which are currently over-exploited, particularly where spawning stocks are depleted or where the ecosystem has been seriously damaged, fishing efforts should be reduced or ceased until stocks have recovered. Aquaculture
Aquaculture can be developed in ways which do not degrade coastal and marine biodiversity. Integrated systems will be more sustainable than monocultures, for example by the combined culturing of seaweeds, mussels and salmon. Due to their extensive space and water requirements, hatcheries will have fewer impacts on the surrounding environment if they are located within developed areas of the coast and where road access already exists. If possible, they should be contained within existing buildings. Contamination problems can be significantly reduced by locating large-scale production units in exposed or semi-exposed locations in the sea, in water depths of at least 40 metres. However, special attention must then be paid to the increased risks of farmed fish escaping to the wild. In any event, such units should be located away from sea grass communities or other sensitive habitats, as well as recreational and fishing areas. Support facilities should be located onshore in previously developed sites. Fish packing and/or processing units should be located onshore, perhaps in existing industrial sites. Small-scale production units should be located onshore, set back from the beach, in areas with good road access. Fish tanks should be set in the ground, with pipelines and services buried underground. Birds or wild fish should be deterred from intrusion through the use of nets. All steps should be taken to prevent escapes of farmed species and interactions with wild species. Site-specific contingency plans will help minimise the impacts of an escape of a significant number of fish. Biosafety measures can be applied to minimise the effects and transfers and introductions of alien species, including prior impact analysis, quarantine, and when and where necessary, eradication measures or operations closure. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) Code of Practice on the Introductions and Transfers of Marine Organisms (1994) provides important guidelines on this subject. The control and prevention of diseases and parasites should be carefully considered. Techniques include vaccination, dietary measures, frequent and detailed health inspections, optimal stocking densities, careful handling and avoidance of unnecessary disturbance of fish, disinfection of transportation equipment and the use of foot baths at production facilities. In addition, fallowing of sites should be considered where possible to minimise outbreaks of disease and/or parasites and to allow the recovery of benthic areas. Any diseased stock should be treated or removed, and under no circumstances be allowed to enter the marine environment. Dead or dying fish should be removed as quickly as possible and safely disposed of. Fish farms can minimise nutrient discharges and losses by developing and utilising appropriate feeding methods and fish feed (predominantly dry). Special treatment plants can be an effective way to eliminate solid wastes, chemical and pharmaceutical additives, and nutrients from effluents or other discharges to the sea. Discharge pipe outlets should not be located near intake pipes of other installations. In some cases, treated effluent water from fish farms can be used for agricultural irrigation. The use of toxic chemicals at fish farms should be banned. Net cages can be washed or dried in place of the use of toxic anti-fouling compounds. REFERENCES: Fisheries and Aquaculture
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