| European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones |
| VII. ENERGY
7.1. Status and Trends The dominant fuel used in countries of the European Union is oil. Solid fuels (coal, lignite) are most prevalent in central Europe, and the former Soviet states are primarily dependent upon gas and oil (Stanners & Bourdeau 1995). The rate of growth in the use of nuclear power has slowed (Ibid). There are around 200 nuclear power plants operating in Europe, many of which are located in coastal regions or along rivers. Nordic countries are the leaders in the use of renewable energy sources. Iceland, for example, obtains nearly a third of its electricity from geothermal sources, and more than a third from hydropower. Denmark's success with windpower is well documented, and Norway gets virtually all of its electricity from hydropower (Ibid). Over the long term, an increase in the use of renewable energy sources looks very promising ? economically as well as environmentally. According to one recent study, "the prospects are excellent that a wide range of new renewable energy technologies will become fully competitive with conventional sources of energy during the next several decades." (Johansson 1993) The rate at which renewables become competitive, however, will largely depend upon the extent to which they are supported by subsidies and tax incentives, as conventional sources currently enjoy. Certainly the adoption of full cost accounting procedures for conventional sources of energy (as recommended by the OECD among others) would make renewables more attractive by comparison. In the shorter term, however, conventional sources of energy
will continue to be exploited as renewables gain momentum. In
all regions of Europe, the use of natural gas is on the rise (Stanners
& Bourdeau 1995). It is projected that gas production
in Europe will decline slowly, with two thirds of the current
potential supply depleted by 2050 (Johansson 1993). 7.2. Impacts Mining and drilling, power generation and fuel storage, refining, transport and use all have major impacts on environmental quality. Power stations fuelled by conventional sources are often sited in coastal areas due to their extensive water requirements for cooling and/or fuel supply. Specific impacts of conventional energy production include water pollution (oil, thermal, radioactive discharges), air pollution (CO2, NOx, SO2), land subsidence, and damage to habitats through the construction of access roads, use of heavy equipment, drilling and mining, all of which are harmful to biodiversity and landscapes in coastal regions. More serious damage may occur from accidents such as blowouts (oil and gas drilling), oil tanker accidents, or nuclear catastrophes. Conventional energy installations also occupy significant space in land-scarce coastal areas. The nuclear industry poses a special threat to coastal and marine ecosystems due to the sheer scale of damage that is likely to result from a major nuclear accident. Nuclear power plants are frequently located in coastal areas or near rivers due to the large volume of cooling water needed, and radioactive wastes are regularly transported across European seas for reprocessing in France, England and Scotland. Even in the absence of major accidents, coastal and marine ecosystems are threatened by operational discharges of radioactive waste. Global climate change also represents a major threat to coastal and marine regions over the long term. The most prevalent greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide (CO2), with emissions arising from both natural and man-made sources. Of man-made sources, the burning of fossil fuels is the greatest source of emissions. According to the 1995 Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global sea level has risen 10-25 cm over the last 100 years, and may rise an additional 15-95 cm (with a best estimate of 50 cm) by 2100. Even if the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere were to stabilise by that time, sea level would continue to rise at a similar rate beyond this date and long into the future. It is also important to note that these estimates refer to global averages; changes in regional sea levels may significantly differ (IPPC 1995). For these reasons, the development of renewable energy sources is preferable to continued investment in conventional energy supplies. However, renewables are not without their impacts, particularly at the local level, and it is essential that prior to any large-scale development, environmental impact assessments must be carried out. It must be stressed, however, that in comparison with conventional energy sources, these impacts are small (with the exception of large-scale hydropower schemes) (Stanners & Bourdeau 1995). In coastal areas, renewable energy developments may cause changes in sediment transport and deposition (tidal barrages) (English Nature 1993a), obstruction of migration routes (tidal barrages, dams), disturbance and to some extent, mortality of bird (wind power) and other impacts associated with all types of coastal engineering works. Of all renewable energy sources, wind power is considered to be the most economically feasible for further development in Europe generally. Windpower may be generated by a single turbine, or by a group of turbines which together form a wind farm. The environmental impacts of a wind farm are greater than those arising from a single turbine (Aspinwall & Company 1994). Wind farms tend to require large amounts of land, dictated by the needs for a minimum space between each turbine. They also have aesthetic impacts and there is often concern about noise disturbance. Tidal power may also have significant impacts in nearby coastal
areas. Tidal barriers may result in changes to tidal volumes,
levels and velocities, which affect salinity, sediment transport
and deposition, with significant impacts in saltmarsh and intertidal
zones (Ibid). 7.3. Opportunities Renewable energy sources, by reducing our reliance on non-renewable energy supplies (such as oil and gas which contribute to global climate change and air pollution) and avoiding the need to use nuclear power, contribute to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly means of energy production. They provide also a safer alternative to nuclear power, avoiding the need for the use, storage, transport, and/or disposal of dangerous radioactive materials. Important opportunities to develop specific renewable energy sources include:
7.4. Guidelines for Energy Development in Coastal Areas Energy Conservation Utilising opportunities to save energy through conservation and efficiency programmes is an essential element in reducing CO2 emissions. Such options should be thoroughly considered prior to the construction of new energy facilities. Air Pollution Proposals for new energy facilities should include an audit of their contribution to global warming and air quality problems. Problematic emissions will be reduced if new plants run on the cleanest possible fuels (natural gas, renewables), and those running on dirty fuels (nuclear, coal, lignite, oil-shale and oil) are phased out. Applying strict emission standards for NOx, SO2, CO2 and methane to all plants throughout Europe will also help reduce pollution effects. Wherever possible, CO2 should be removed from fuel feedstocks. Siting of Buildings and Infrastructure Guidelines on the siting of buildings and infrastructure can
be found in the Chapter on "Urbanisation". 7.4.1. Conventional Energy Sources Offshore oil and gas development There are many environmental arguments in favour of a ban on exploration for new sources of oil and gas, for reasons of climate change or to protect ecologically sensitive areas such as the Wadden Sea or the Baltic Sea. At a minimum, stringent environmental impact assessments should be carried out prior to any new development, and application of the precautionary principle would dictate that offshore activities should not proceed if it cannot be shown that they will not cause significant harm to coastal and marine ecosystems. All of these arguments should be thoroughly considered before deciding to open new areas for exploration and/or development. Implementation of integrated Environmental Management Systems will help industry meet increasingly stringent environmental standards for existing operations. Drilling muds and cuttings, particularly those which are oil-based, and polluted production water should not be discharged to the sea. Diesel oil-based muds should not be used anymore. Alternative options for the disposal of decommissioned offshore installations at sea are required. (See the Chapter on "Transport", section on oil spills, for further information related to oil development.) Onshore Oil and Gas Exploration and Development Techniques such as deviated and horizontal drilling can be used to avoid impacts on sensitive natural areas. Siltation from run-off waters and pollution from discharges and drilling muds can be environmentally damaging and should be avoided. Site restoration is more effective if during site preparation, leaf litter, topsoil and subsoil are reserved. As with offshore oil and gas development, an effective contingency plan will help mitigate the impact of oil spills. Nuclear power Many safety issues are unresolved, and a number of existing plants pose a serious risk to the environment (particularly the Chernobyl-type reactors in Ignalina, Sosnovy Bor and on the Kola Peninsula). Resolving these issues should be a precondition for the further construction of new nuclear plants. Radioactive Waste Disposal Radioactive waste should not be disposed of in the marine or
coastal environment, or where it may otherwise affect these environments.
Rather, it should be concentrated and contained, preferably on
or near the site where it is generated, until safe, permanent
disposal techniques are developed. 7.4.2. Renewable Sources Wind Windpower should be developed where possible alongside or within existing coastal developments (e.g. industrial sites, power stations, harbours) or on agricultural lands, set back from the coastline. Wind farms located in sensitive wildlife habitats, or on seaside
cliff or headland sites, where the highest concentration of birds
may be found, can have major effects on the wildlife. In addition,
they may be considered a nuisance near residential areas. Once wind turbines have been installed, local authorities should ensure their optimal function, for example by preventing the construction of buildings or other tall structures in the surrounding area which could reduce local wind speeds. In especially sensitive areas, machines designed for noise reduction can be employed. For example, turbines with two-speed operation allow the use of the lower speed during quieter periods of low wind, and the higher speed during noisier periods of high wind. Solar energy Solar energy should be developed as extensively as possible and habitat and architecture should be planned to that effect. Tidal Power Tidal barriers provide both threats and opportunities for redistribution and settlement of coastal sediments. New habitat can be created, though a full understanding of the nature of the geomorphological system is essential. Tidal barrages should be equipped with fish passes for migratory species. Hydroelectric Power New hydroelectric power stations can cause erosion of the shoreline as sediment delivery to the coast is restricted. They may have the greatest impact on virgin river systems in coastal drainage areas. When siting hydroelectric stations areas which are sensitive to such impacts should be avoided. Hydroelectric dams can be equipped with fish ladders to allow migrating fish to pass. Such fish passes should remain operable even when river flow is low. Screening turbine intakes and outfalls will help ensure reduced fish kill. Reduction in sediment supply as a result of dams, for example, not only reduces the ability of habitats such as sand dunes and saltmarshes to continue to grow but may also reduce sediment availability for beach nourishment. In turn this can, and often does, lead to coastal erosion and can have severe impacts on coastal urbanisation as is the case on the Nile Delta amongst a number of other important deltas in the Mediterranean. Dams should be fitted with sediment bypasses to prevent damage to coastal wetlands, especially in river deltas. Zero-flow regimes, where water diversion leaves dry stretches of river, will result in major losses of plants and animals. Biomass Biomass plantations are less diverse than natural ecosystems.
Therefore, they should only be established on degraded or set-aside
agricultural lands. Equal amounts of set-aside land should preferably
be allowed to return to a natural state in order to promote biodiversity.
REFERENCES: Energy
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