| European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones | |
| VI. MILITARY DEFENCE
6.1. Status and Trends Since 1989 there have been major changes for military defence activities
in Europe, especially in Eastern Europe where many military facilities
were located. In recent years, there has been a marked decline in
military activities, many military bases have been closed, and large
numbers of nuclear weapons are being de-commissioned. In some cases,
military sites have simply been abandoned, and given for coastal
local or regional authorities to manage. 6.2. Impacts A broad spectrum of activities related to military defence has implications for biological and landscape diversity in coastal regions. These include, for example:
However the opposite is also true. In the UK, for example, some of the most important coastal dunes and cliffs lie within areas "protected" by military use. The absence of intensive agriculture or industrial development has allowed large areas of habitat to survive. Military requirements and procedures also have impacts on the environment as well as on public access to coastal and marine areas. Such requirements include:
As the military have supremacy over any area they use, conflicts, particularly with the natural environment, are virtually unavoidable. For example, naval and air force exercises are allowed to proceed despite their potential impacts on nature, a result of low-altitude flying or underwater detonations. For this reason, long-term military use, given the variety of military operations and the sensitivity of natural areas, has led to significant impacts on the environment in some areas. The specific impacts resulting from the activities described above are as varied as the activities themselves. Military activities create the same kind of polluting emissions that are caused by other socio-economic sectors (CCB 1992), but may in fact be worse because there is little or no environmental regulation of military activities in many European countries. Military defence activities have resulted in a number of environmental problems such as the destruction of landscapes, pollution of soil, water and air, and contamination of the environment with radioactive substances. Some coastal sites that are used for military activities contain, or are close to, important moulting, roosting or breeding areas for endangered bird species. Such areas are often intensively used for target practice and training flights by helicopters and jets, which can cause considerable disturbance for the birds. The European populations of eight endangered bird species are predicted to suffer low impacts from this threat (Tucker, G., Kalejta-Summers, B 1997). Another serious problem is the existence of chemical weapons dumped at sea at the end of World War II. Precise information about the location of these weapons is often missing, and when it is available, it is often withheld from the public. As a result, fishermen are exposed to the danger of bringing corroded chemical weapons to the surface in their nets. The implications for marine life are also considerable. The risk associated with the storage of ammunition may also have
consequences for nature conservation (English
Nature 1993a), particularly when military sites are established
or expanded in the most vulnerable landscapes, such as coastal plains
and sand dunes (Coastline 1996-2). These areas are characterised
by a high sensitivity to human impact and slow rates of regeneration.
6.3. Opportunities Despite the impacts described above, military sites, especially the larger areas used for the training of troops, often contain significant natural values. Such landscapes may differ from surrounding lands characterised by roads, industry and other infrastructure. The relinquishment of these sites is an increasing occurrence. There are major opportunities for conversion of these sites into land- and sea-based nature reserves or protected areas. Only in very limited areas should new development take place, and where it does development should be environmentally sustainable. Many countries in Europe are grappling with similar problems posed
by the abandonment and conversion of former military sites. These
problems are not only environmental, but also economic and cultural.
Opportunities therefore exist for the responsible authorities to
co-operate in finding environmentally sustainable solutions 6.4. Guidelines for the Military Defence Sector in Coastal Areas Military authorities should take responsibility for the environmental pollution and damage that they cause. The development of manuals and, if possible, Environmental Management Systems for military activities by European Defence Ministries will help avoid problems. Consideration should be given to making military activities, at least during peacetime, comply with the same environmental regulations and considerations which would apply to civil activities. Information about the effects of military activities on coastal and marine life or nearby inhabitants should be made available to the public. Military activities harmful to wildlife in protected nature conservation zones or parks, both land- and marine-based, should be prohibited. Minimising military defence manoeuvres and exercises will help minimise destruction of nature or disturbance of areas of importance for endangered or rare species. Nature Conservation in (Former) Military Areas Former military sites with important natural value or potential natural value can be converted into nature conservation areas. Responsibility for any clean-up which may be necessary prior to relinquishing supervision of military sites should lie with the military authorities, but carried out in close co-operation with local or regional authorities. It will also be important to provide detailed information about previous uses of the site during the hand-over of responsibilities. Radioactive Waste Disposal Radioactive waste disposal in the marine or coastal environment, or where it may otherwise affect these environments, is not acceptable. It is best concentrated and contained, preferably on or near the site where it is generated, until safe, permanent disposal techniques are developed. Training and awareness of personnel handling such wastes should be considered a high priority. Waste disposal Civil authorities are paying increasing attention to handling wastes in an ecologically acceptable way, including "cradle-to-cradle" techniques. Military authorities should take a similar approach. Arms and munitions: Disposal at Sea A strategy is required to allow the cessation of the disposal of arms and at sea. Information on the past disposal of arms and munitions at sea by the military is required. This will require military authorities to establish and/or co-operate with efforts designed to collect and safely dispose of such wastes, including abandoned nuclear submarines. REFERENCES: Military defence
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