| European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones | |
| IV AGRICULTURE 4.1. Status and Trends Agriculture is amongst the most important land uses affecting coastal areas of Europe. Few coastal habitats are free from some form of human intervention and for many their nature conservation interest is determined or modified by farming activity. Historically, forest clearance and a pastoral economy with limited arable cultivation helped establish many heaths and coastal grasslands and modified sand dunes, lagoons and coastal grazing areas to help create the rich variety of habitats. Today the agriculture sector is of undeniable importance in terms of land cover and economic production as a percentage of GDP, but as a source of employment it has declined significantly over the last 25 years. In 1970, agriculture was responsible for 13.5% of total employment in the European Economic Community; in 1992 this figure dropped to a mere 6% (European Commission 1994) . The drop in employment has generally been caused by increased productivity in the sector together with a rise in imports. This has been accompanied by a reduction of the area under cultivation. In all, the agricultural sector has undergone significant changes which are also due in part to the latest reform of the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy, with its tendency towards putting land out to fallow (Aménagement de l'espace européen 1994). According to a study of the Northern Seaboard area, "The net
effect of the trends observed in agriculture by the end of the
century are likely to be:
Agriculture, both crops and livestock, has traditionally occupied large land areas. Many of the areas around estuaries and deltas were originally derived from the enclosure of tidal land and marshes, from forest clearance and from forest fires. Today new areas of land claimed for agricultural use are much less evident, as productivity levels have increased to such an extent that in some areas over production is a problem. Moreover, cheap food imports have often replaced home produced foods. Grazing is an important use of many coastal areas and sand dunes, wetlands and coastal cliffs and cliff tops are all influenced by it. Natural grazers have probably always used these areas, but domestic stock have caused significant modifications in each. The area of sand dune grassland and heath has been, in temperate regions, extended and possibly enhanced by grazing. Whilst overgrazing at high stocking densities can result in serious erosion and loss of vegetation, a sudden removal of all grazers can be as equally harmful, resulting in over-stabilisation of the plant cover and the loss of large areas of the vegetation the habitat of many different species. The use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides causes surface and groundwater pollution and acid deposition. A number of phenomena linked to the relationship between coastal agricultural zones and pollution or eutrophication, such as run-off, deep percolation of chemicals and changes to hydrological systems, lead to the depletion of groundwater (EIW 1992) . Irrigation can cause salinisation of the soil as salt rises from deep deposits so that the soil cannot be used for agriculture. The draining of wetlands for agricultural purposes and the wide dispersal of pollution from the spreading of some fertilizers and of residues of pesticides has often led to the destruction or degradation of important coastal habitats. Pollutants which reach the sea affect the marine ecosystem in two ways: through chemical, pollution or indirectly as a result of eutrophication (HELCOM Prot. Balt. Sea). Nutrients arising from the agriculture sector which cause eutrophication (and deep water oxygen depletion) and toxic algal blooms in turn, contain nitrogen and phosphorous which are found in manure, pesticides and fertilizers. They are introduced to the marine environment through percolation (as a result of improper application and/or storage), atmospheric emissions, and run-off. Nutrient concentration levels in estuaries are often particularly high because of their high productivity, and external sources serve to increase these natural levels. In addition, the agriculture sector is responsible for about 45% of the global emissions of methane, a powerful global warming gas produced by decomposing animal wastes (Greenpeace Int. 1992) . The increasing industrialisation of the agriculture sector, if
continued, poses a threat not only to natural areas but also to
the diversity of cultural landscapes, as well as to the traditional
small family farm (European Spatial Planning 1994) . 4.3. Opportunities A continuous shift towards more environmentally friendly agriculture
may help ensure the sustainability of the sector over the long
term. In addition, reforms to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)
by the EU in particular are becoming more responsive to environment
issues. Thus in recent years discussion on the CAP have begun
to focus on the need to introduce a policy for the maintenance
of farming income which is no longer based on production but takes
more account of environmental issues. The Uruguay Round negotiations
on agriculture (part of the GATT agreement) forced the issue.
As a result a series of reforms were made to the CAP in 1992 which
helped to secure the Marrakech agreements (WTO). These included
a reduction in support prices (mainly for cereals and meat), set-aside
and the implementation of agri-environmental measures. Some specific
regulations with environmental concerns are:
The removal of agricultural lands from production, if carefully planned, also presents important opportunities for enhancement of biodiversity, for example through habitat re-creation and improved environmental quality. Set aside provisions and management of Environmentally Sensitive Areas are amongst the mechanisms which are used to promote appropriate nature conservation in coastal areas. The latter of these can include the extension of semi-natural habitat onto former more intensively used land as for example on coastal cliff tops and adjacent to coastal grazing. In areas where development of the soil has transformed lagoons into arable land, a reversal of this process can be undertaken by setting back the line of sea defence and allowing the sea to flood the land. There should be further opportunities for the development of this approach particularly in areas of sea level rise where maintenance of sea walls is economically not justified. In addition opportunities for more general environmental enhancement are also available. According to one report, the "plant cover" on land under set-aside locks up soil nitrogen, reducing the amount of nitrates released into streams and ultimately estuaries. Reduced tillage levels associated with less land under arable cultivation can result in lower levels of sedimentary run-off which may contribute to improvements in water quality. Improved water quality levels in estuaries benefit recreational users, fishermen and those who maintain the waterways as well as wildlife. Land-claim for agricultural purposes is less likely to occur as the potential returns are unlikely to cover the costs involved. Lower levels of agricultural chemical use and increased efficiency in their application will benefit wildlife" (English Nature 1993) . Loss of farming income has led some farmers to intensify activities
to ecologically unsustainable levels. Other farmers, however,
are reporting success through the diversification beyond traditional
agricultural practices. In The Netherlands, for example, it is
estimated that national farm income is supplemented by 440 million
guilders annually through "multi-functional" farming, and this
figure is expected to rise to 1165 million guilders per year over
the next few years (Joustra 1997) . Supplementary activities include,
amongst others, the provision of campsites and the opportunity
to taste local specialities. This approach has been particularly
successful in areas where agriculture has been in conflict with
nature protection or is threatened by mainstream tourism development
pressures. In general, it can be shown that farmers have an important
role to play in maintaining existing traditional agricultural
landscapes, satisfying demands for rural tourism and recreation
(and thus alleviating pressure on nature areas), and serving as
managers of the land. 4.4. Guidelines for Agriculture in Coastal Areas Protection of hydrographic water basins In some regions, within zones up to 50 km from the coast, the battle against erosion has already begun, either by traditional methods (crating terraces or banks) or as part of regional development projects. Diversification Agricultural practices that are compatible with environmental protection should be encouraged wherever possible, including through the provision of advice, support and conversion subsidies to farmers. Farmers should be encouraged to support biodiversity by farming genetically varied plant species and animal breeds. Farmers should consider the potential for diversifying activities and supplementing farm income, for example through agro-tourism and recreation. Farmers should be encouraged to diversify farm landscapes, particularly along the margins of fields by the planting of hedgerows and trees and the creation of ponds. Where appropriate, farmers should take account of the needs of meadow birds (mainly on grassland in the spring) and wintering and migrating birds (on grassland and arable land in winter). Grazing Livestock density should be reduced in natural or semi-natural habitats. It should be based on traditional types of grazing and stocking capacities. Very few areas should be left totally ungrazed in the temperate regions. Reintroduction of grazing may be required where grazing has ceased as for example on former grazing saltmarshes and sand dunes. In other areas, livestock density may have to be reduced as highly intense grazing reduces the structure and diversity of the vegetation and, in dunes, can lead to extensive erosion, particularly in some Mediterranean regions. Seasonal grazing may need to take account of the presence of breeding species, notably birds. Regeneration/Restoration Set-aside agricultural lands offer a valuable opportunity for habitat recreation. Lands not suitable for or removed from agricultural use should therefore be allowed to produce a varied, natural plant cover where new wildlife habitats can develop, in particular by means of forestry. Land should not be left disused. The creation of new cropping fields in coastal habitats (e.g. sand dunes, marshes, wetlands, maquis areas, forested areas, etc.) should be strongly discouraged. Opportunities to discontinue cropping in these (former) habitats and to restore natural values should be considered. To this end, "development charts" or "land use charts" have to be drawn up. For coastal areas classed as "sensitive", a team comprising of agronomists, pedologists and phytosociologists or botanists could draw up a development plan involving agriculture, forestry and the conservation of flora and fauna. Irrigation The level of agricultural production should be adapted to conform with the availability of renewable water resources. New irrigation schemes which require extra groundwater supplies should be prohibited and should always be subject to an environmental impact assessment considering all possible ways of conserving groundwater. The use of fossil groundwater for irrigation purposes should be strictly avoided. Surface irrigation, through the flooding of large areas, and corrugation irrigation should generally be avoided. The preferred irrigation technique is trickling, by a permanent system of tubes or movable rubber tubes, which can achieve a water-use efficiency of 90% and a high level of fertiliser absorption by plants. Irrigation of sloping land, if it is absolutely necessary, should avoid producing run-off as much as possible. Pest Management Fertilisation and integrated pest management should be planned as part of the crop rotation process. Early detection of attacks, biological control of pests and mechanical as well as manual weeding must be included in integrated pest management programmes. The use of hazardous substances in the Agriculture sector should be phased out as a matter of high priority. It is particularly important to stop as quickly as possible the use in the open environment of organotin compounds, organophosphorous and organochlorine compounds, triazine, heavy metal compounds, synthetic pyrethroides and methyl bromide. At the same time, only a limited range of pesticides, with a determinated impact, should be used. Fertilizers Individual or co-operative farms should aim for balanced production. The amount of solid or liquid manure produced should not exceed that which the land can use in a healthy crop rotation system. This requires an analysis of soil, manure, standing crops and external potential nutrient sources in relation to local climate conditions, slope, irrigation and farming and land-use and agricultural practices. Pedological expertise may allow fertilisation to be adapted for use in agricultural basins. The application of fertilizers should be done in such a way as
to avoid nutrient loss:
Solid and liquid manure should be removed frequently from enclosures and properly stored outside. Solid manure should be kept on waterproof soil surrounded by walls. Liquid manure should not be stored in open lagoons. Where possible, methane should be recovered. Poultry droppings should be dried as quickly as possible after excretion. Effluents from the preparation and storage of silage should be collected and added to storage areas for liquid manure. The level of nutrients in excrement should be controlled through the use of high quality fodder (i.e. optimized amino acid composition, balanced ratio between carbohydrates and protein, or enzymatically improved digestibility of the fodder) and/or advanced feeding systems. Finally, and perhaps most importantly for the improvement of biodiversity, nutrient leaching should be reduced by establishing fallow zones between 5 and 20 meters wide along the banks of rivers and streams. These non-fertilised areas could be planted with bushes or trees. Energy Conservation Farmers should strive to conserve energy by phasing-out energy-inefficient farm equipment and utilising renewable energy produced on site. Litter Collection systems or other measures should be introduced to reduce sources of agriculture-related litter (pesticide packaging, etc.). In areas where there is a high fire risk, agricultural waste (straw) should be buried rather than burned. Run-off and Soil Erosion Coastal zone management plans should ensure that agricultural lands are developed in a way which prevents soil erosion and the loss of nutrients, with a good balance of land used for forestry, agriculture, dry land farming, pasture, etc. as appropriate to local climate conditions. During the winter, arable land in coastal regions should not be left open or newly ploughed. The planting of winter crops which absorb substantial quantities of nutrients is recommended. If pedological conditions allow, valley floors and vineyards should be permanently grassed over. Crop residue should be retained during the off-season. Wherever possible, the use of reduced or no tillage soil cultivation
technologies should be utilised. REFERENCES: Agriculture
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